THE NOPiMAL: 



OR 



METHODS OF TEACHING 

THE coMMOisr bka:^ches, 

OETHOEPT, ORTHOGRAPHY, GRAMMAR, GEOGRAPHY, 
ARITHMETIC AXD ELOCUTION; 

INCLTTDINO 



Tin: OUTLINES, TECHNICALITIES, EXPLANATIONS, DEMONSTRATIONS, 
DEFINITIONS AND METHODS, 
INTRODUCTORY AND PECULIAR TO EACH BP^ANGH. r 



v^ 



.C(^ 



€:. 



<'^S By Alfred'' holbrook,__ 

PRINOIPAL OF NORMAL SCHOOL, LEBANON, OHIO. 



j^EW YORK : 
PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR, 

51 & 53 JOHN STREET. 
1859. 






.H73 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, 

By a. S. BARNES & BURR, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United 
States for the Southern District of New York. 



PREFACE. 



Multitudes of growing teacliers spend money 
by tens or hundreds every year, in visiting scJiooIs, 
in order, that by witnessing the operations of 
teachers of acknowledged ability, they may im- 
prove or remodel their own systems. This volume 
is designed to take a working school on a visit to 
teachers. It presents to its readers in succession, 
classes in the several grades of the common 
branches in actual operation, and the teachers pur- 
suing such methods as have proved abundantly 
successful with large numbers who have tried 
them. 

The Normal has been undertaken as a matter of 
necessity for training classes of Teachers. All 
books hitherto written for teachers, being designed 

Ciii) 



IV PREFACE. 

only as reference books, are too general to be used 
as text books. If Teaching is a science, it can 
be taught as a science ; and text books can be used 
with as much advantage as in other sciences. As 
the work has progressed, the different Parts have 
been brought to the test in Classes of Teachers, 
and have been found greatly to facilitate the pecu- 
liar duties and labors of the Normal School. 

The different Parts, as they have appeared from 
time to time, have been used by many hundreds of 
teachers as Guide-books in their school-room du- 
ties, being consulted, more or less, daily, for hints 
and aids in the management of the several classes. 
From many such teachers, in the different grades 
of schools, both public and private, the author has 
received encouraging assurances of the utility, the 
necessity of the work. In numerous instances 
teachers, aided by its directions and suggestions, 
have remodeled their entire operations, and from 
very indifferent materials, as they had supposed, 
have been able to reconstruct and build up an effi- 
cient and successful system. 

The Parts on Geography, Grammar, and Arith- 
metic, are used by pupils as well as teachers, for 



Wi I ,, .. 



~~1 



PREFACE. V 

reference books in the preparation of their lessons; 
the classifications and demonstrations affording aid 
in the thorough investigation of each of these 
branches. 

The Second and Sixth Parts are designed to be 
used as text books in Reading and Speaking; 
though prepared for Teachers' Classes in the Nor- 
mal School, they ■will be found none the less suita- 
ble for classes in Reading and Speaking in any 
school. 

Though the special methods of only the branch- 
es mentioned on the title page are given in this 
volume, the General Method described in connec- 
tion with teaching ad\ranced classes in Grammar 
in Part III, is equally applicable to the Higher 
Branches. 

Fellow Teachers, should any one of you make a 
panorama of the school under your special charge, 
or the system of schools under your general super- 
vision, painted on successive pages in word pic- 
tures, as I have endeavored to do, please let me 
know ; I shall wish to obtain a sight of it. 

I have already been amply compensated for the 
labor and expense bestowed in the preparation and 



VI PREFACE. 

publication of the Normal ; and should the bound 

volume meet with the same cordial reception from 

my brethren, which has greeted the several Parts 

as they have successively appeared, I shall surely 

have abundant reason to feel that " my labor has 

not been in vain." a. h. 

South-Western Normal School, 
Lebanon J 0., Jan. 1859. 



PART I, 

CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: 

OR, SCIENCE. 




-^ 



INTEODU.CTION. 

Knowledge is that whicli is already known by the 
individual, or which he may certainly know by 
study. In a more general sense, it is that which 
is already known by any one of the human species; 
and hence may be known by many others. 

All else is mystery. The limits of knowledge 
are constantly enlarging, but mystery, instead of 
diminishing, becomes still more enlarged. Myste- 
rious, unanswerable problems rise on every side. 
For every new fact that is acquired by accident or 
investigation, many new mysteries present them- 
selves to the inquirer. This will be found to be 
true in every direction. The man of few thoughts 
has few difficulties or doubts; the idiot, none. But 
as the boundaries of thought increase by its own 
activity, innumerable queries spring up on every 
side, some of which are generalized with previous 
queries and their answers, and are thus solved or 
explained; others, however, are retained for gen- 
eralization and solution till a sufficient number 
of other truths of similar kind are clustered or 
classified together to form a law or general princi- 
ple. He who is most successful in classifying iso- 
lated facts, in perceiving identities, similarities, and 
relations in truths, will most sueedilv arrive at a 

(9) 



10 OENEilAL OUTLINE. 

satisfactory knowledge of things. Again, lie wlio 
has the most truth already classified has every 
advantage over him whose knowledge, such as it, 
lies in chaos; in bare, isolated, unconnected facts, 
or semblan-ces of facts, retained in the memory on 
the princiiDle of locality or association. Again, it is 
not always borne in mind that truth generalized or 
systematized is just as mysterious after all. The 
reference of a new fact to a general principle is 
commonly taken for a satisfactory solution of the 
why and wherefore connected with it; while to the 
thinker the mystery remains just as much unsolved 
as before; nay, much enhanced by the consideration. 

Take, for example, the great Newtonian theory of 
the law of gravitation. "Why," said Newton, as 
thousands had said before, "does this apple fall to 
the ground?" The thousands had generalized the 
fact by saying, "All bodies fall to the earth." 
Newton asked again, "Why do all bodies fall to 
the earth?" The matter remained just as much a 
mystery after that generalization as before. In 
solving the mystery he discovered and demonstrat- 
ed the wider generalization, "All matter attracts 
all other, directly as the weight of the masses and 
inversely as the square of the distance." 

Thinkers are now left in more profound mystery 
than before Newtox. For, why does matter exert 
this power in this manner? Non-thinker replies, 
"God has imparted this property to matter;" just 
as Non-thinker before the days of Newton, said, 
" God has established this law, ' All things fall 
towards the earth.' " 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

Who will then exi^lain the law of gravitation? 
that is, generalize it with other facts known or 
unknown, and, perhaps, subvert this law, as New- 
ton dissipated the notion that bodies fall because 
the direction is downward. 

It has been well remarked, that there is but one 
idea in the mind of God, i. e., all facts are general- 
ized or comprehended under one law, universal and 
eternal. Is that law simply his" will? or is it the 
inevitable relation of things over which a God of 
truth exerts no control, but with which all his acts 
harmonize, and with which he would have the acts 
of all his creatures coincide? Who will answer? 

That which is unknown, we call mystery. But 
that which is known and n ot generalized may take 
different names according to circumstances. It may 
be called information^ intelligence^ or crude undigested 
knowledge^ which is but a slight remove from igno- 
rance. x\ man possessing much knowledge in this 
unsystematized state, may be said, possibly, to be 
intelligent^ but surely no one would call him scien- 
tific. Whereas, another, whose general knowledge 
was incomparably less, who had mastered the prin- 
ciples of one subject, as of chemistry or botany, 
might justly be called a man of science. 

In systematizing knowledge as it now exists, in 
other words, converting it into Science, it will be 
found that there are no very well defined lines of 
division. Ideas may be grouped, facts gathered in 
clusters and crystallized into sub-systems, but we 
shall discover before any group is complete and 
well arranged in itself, that we have numerous 



"1 



12 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

truths tliat are required just as necessarily to com- 
plete the arrangement in another group. We may 
find, indeed, that some sciences, as generally re- 
ceived, may be entirely absorbed by others, either 
in a mass or by being divided, according to the 
respective claims of the several others. 

In a General Classification of Knowledge, then, 
like the one presented, there will arise numerous 
difiiculties, from the first division, down through 
the location of the various branches, according to 
their natural relations. No two persons, even 
though equally well disciplined, would probably 
agree in the details of an arrangement of this kind. 

With regard to the first division of Knowledge, 
viz : Literature, the Sciences, and the Arts ; it is 
that generally recognized. The nature of things 
demands this division, and general assent corrobo- 
rates it. The division of the Ancients was Physics, 
Metaphysics, and the Arts. The division of the 
Moderns is, Mind, Matter, and its inseparable con- 
comitants, power and quantity ; lastly, the Arts. 
The difficulty, then, is not in the grand division as 
aforesaid, but in locating the several departments ; 
much more in locating the various branches. One 
might claim, for instance, that Ethics belongs more 
properly in Phrenics, another would place it in 
Epistatics, as connected inseparably with human 
governments. We have placed it in Theotics, as 
being more closely associated with relations to the 
Deity : the moral nature being the image of God 
implanted in the soul. 



CLASSIFIED KNOWLEEGE: f I^iterature. 

^ iHE Sciences. 
SCIENCE. 



OR, 



(_The Arts. 



DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF LITERATURE. 



1 


f psychology. 


~ 


Phrenology, 


Gram inn r, * 


Phrenics, -j Elocution, 


Rhetoric, 


Logic, 


(. Didactics. 




'Theism, 


f Theology, 


Deism, 
Pantheism, 




Polytheism, 


Theotics, •{ 


^Atheism. 






'Christianity, 






Judaism, 






Mohammedanism, 




Religion, 


Paganism, 


1 


Infidelity, 


L Ethics, 




f Tr„p i Sacred, 
History, { ^''"®' 1 Profane. 




\, Fictitious. 




Chronology, 




r True, 


Chronics, -j Biography, -i 




t False — Novels. 




Travels, ( 




Poems, < Epic. 


t Archaeology, t 


r Natural, 




,- n- -1 < Common, 
Law, ^ Civil, j statute. 




1 International, 


Epistatics, 


• 


Ecclesiastical. 
' Patriarchal, 




. Government, 


,, , . , Absolute, 
. Monarchical, j^^^-.^^^. 


[Democratic, j Representative. 


(13) 



CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: 
OR, SCIENCE. 



C Literature. 
-j The Sciences. 
(^The Arts. 



DEPARTMENTS AND BRANCHES OF THE SCIENCES. 



Geotics, 



Mathematics^ 



f Geography, 
I Geology, 
I Mineralogy, 

Chemistry, 

Botany, 
i. Zoology. 



' Abstract, 



. Applied, 



r Anatomy, 
I Physiology, 
Therapeutics, { Pathology, 
I Hygiene, 
(^ Medicine, 



Physics, 



'Arithmetic, 

Geometry, 

Analysis, 

Algebra, 

An. Geometry, 

Calculus. 
'Book-Keeping, 

Mensuration, 

Surveying, 

Navigation, 
.Astronomy. 



r Physopat.hy, 
1 Allopathy, 
■{ Homoeopathy, 
I Hydropathy, 
[Electropathy. 



' Mechanics, 

Hydrostatics, 

Hydraulics, 

Pneumatics, 

Acoustics, 

Pyronomica, 

Optics, 

Electrics, 
[Physical Astronomy. 



(14) 



CLASSIFIED KNOWLEDGE: (^■^XrcKs, 

OR, SCIENCE. (The Arts. 



depart:ments and branches of the arts. 



Technics, 



Graphics, 



Polemics, 



COSMICS, 



r Agriculture, 
I Horticulture, 
■{ Pomology, 
I Manufactures, 
i. Printing. 



(Drafting, 
Architecture, 
Naviteeture, 



1^ Civil Engineering. 



f Linear, 
I Mathematical, 
■{ Perspective, 
j Isometrical, 
1^ Shades and Shadows. 



f Strategy, 
Tactics, 
Military En- 
[gineering. 

f Painting, 
I Sculpture, 
-J Music, 
1 Poetry, 
I Dancing. 



r Infantry, 
j Cavalry, 
j Artillery, 
[Naval. 

Pencilling, 

Photography, 

Engraving. 



(15) 



DEFINITIONS. 

PRELIMINARY TERMS. 
1 

Knowledge. That whicli is known. 
Mystery. That'wliicli is not known. 

2. 

Science. Knowledge systematized and explained. 
Empiricism. Knowledge not systematized or 
explained. 

Dogmatism. Opinions asserted as knowledge. 

3. 

Conjecture. A supposition assumed without sat- 
isfactory data. 

Hypothesis. A supposition assumed to account 
for a fact. 

Theory. A supposition sustained by several 
facts, which it generalizes and explains. 

4. 

Theory, The systematic arrangement of laws 
and principles. 

Practice. The application of such laws and 
principles to useful purposes. 

5. 

Discovery. The act of finding out that which 
previously existed. 

Invention. The act of contriving and producing 
that which did not previously exist. 
(16) 



DEFINITIONS. 17 

6. 
GRAND DIVISIONS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

Literature. That grand division of knowledge 
which comprises all those branches treating of the 
mind, its nature and communications ; also, the 
responsibilities, history and government of man. 

The Sciences. That grand division of knowl- 
edge which comprises all those branches which 
treat of matter and quantity. 

The Arts. That grand division of knowledge 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
the improvement or embellishment of matter. 

7. 
departments of literature. 

Phrenics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which treat of the na- 
ture of mmd, and the communication of thought. 

Theotics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which treat of Grod, 
and the obligations of men to the Deity and to 
each other. 

Chronics. That department of knowledge which 
comprises all those branches which involve the 
lapse of time as a necessary element. 

Epistatics. That department of knowledge 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
human laws and government. 

8. 
departments of the sciences. 

Geotics. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 



18 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

tlie material world, its surface, structure, materials 
and inhabitants. 

Therapeutics. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches necessary to the 
preservation and restoration of health. 

Physics. That department of the sciences which 
comprises all those branches which treat of matter 
in the mass ; also, of force and motion. 

Mathematics. That department of the sciences 
which comprises all those branches which treat of 
quantity, and its applications to substance, time 
and space. 

9. 

DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARTS. 

Technics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branches which contribute to 
the necessities and comfort of man and beast. 

GrRAPHics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those useful branches in which math- 
ematical drafting is a necessary element. 

Polemics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branch-es which treat of war 
and fortification. 

CosMics. That department of the arts which 
comprises all those branches which contribute to 
the pleasures of the taste and imagination ; usually 
called the Fine Arts. 

10. 

BRANCHES OP PHRENICS. 

Psychology. That branch of knowledge which 
treats of the mind, its nature, powers and relations. 



DEFINITIONS. 19 

Phrenology. That branch which treats of tho 
mind, as manifested by the form of the skull. 

Grammar. That branch which treats of lan- 
guage, and its correct use, in the communication 
of thou2:ht. 

Elocution. That branch which treats of vocal 
delivery, in reading and speaking. 

Rhetoric. That branch which treats of clear- 
ness, force, and elegance, in the use of language ; 
also, of the invention, development, and arrange- 
ment of ideas. 

Logic. That branch which treats of thinking 
and reasoning correctly. 

Didactics. That branch which treats of the 
means and methods of imparting instruction ; also, 
of school arrangements and school discipline. 

11. 

DIVISIONS OF THEOTICS. 

Theology. That division of knowledge which 
treats of the existence, nature, and attributes of 
God. 

Religion. That division of knowledge which 
treats of the obligations of men to God, and to each 
other. 

12. 

BRANCHES OF THEOLOGY. 

Theism. That branch which treats of God, as 
having given a revelation of his will to man. 

Deism. That branch which treats of God as 
existing, but denies a revelation. 

Pantheism. That branch which treats of God 
as beins: all thino's, and of all things as being God. 



20 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Polytheism. That brancli wliicli treats of many 
gods, with distinct and conflicting natures. 

Atheism. That branch which treats of natural 
law as controlling all things, and denies the exis- 
tence of a Supreme Intelligence. 

13. 

BRANCHES OF RELIGION. 

Christianity. That branch which treats of the 
religion of Jesus Christ, which recognizes the Old 
and New Testaments as a divine revelation. 

Judaism. That branch which treats of the reli- 
gion of the Jews, which recognizes only the Old 
Testament as a divine revelation. 

Mohammedanism. That branch which treats of 
the religion established by Mahomet, and which 
recognizes the Koran as a divine revelation. 

Paganism. That branch which treats of the 
various beliefs of the heathen, or polytheists. 

Infidelity. That branch which treats of the 
doctrine of sceptics; or those who do not believe in 
a divine revelation. 

Ethics. That branch which treats of morality, 
or the obligations of men to each other ; usually 
called Moral Philosophy. 

14. 

BRANCHES OF CHRONICS. 

History. That branch which treats of the rise 
and progress of nations and communities ; giving 
a narration of events pertaining to each, in order 
of their occurrence, with their causes and conse- 
quences. 



DEFINITIONS. 21 

Sacred History. That given by the writers of 
the Old and New Testaments. 

Profane History. That derived from any other 
source than the Bible. 

Chronology. That branch which treats of the 
various divisions and periods of time, and the 
methods of reckoning the dates of past events. 

Biography. That branch which treats of the 
lives and characters of individuals. 

Arch.eology. That branch which treats of the 
Ancients, their knowledge, manners, customs, etc. 

Travels. That branch which treats of adven- 
tures in journeys ; also, of the manners, customs, 
curiosities, and productions of foreign countries 
or states. 

15. 

BRANCHES OF EPISTATICS. 

Law — A rule of action. 

Natural Law. That branch which treats of 
law as existing in the social relations, prior to any 
positive precept or enactment. 

Civil Law. That branch which treats of law 
established in society, by general usage or positive 
enactment. 

Statute Law. That form of civil law estab- 
lished by legislative power ; also, recorded and 
published as law. 

Common Law. That form of civil law estab- 
lished by general usage, and recognized by the 
decisions of courts. 

International Law. That branch which treats 
of the re2:ulation of the intercourse of nations. 



22 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Ecclesiastical Law. That brancli wliicli 
treats of the laws established for the government 
of a church. 

Government. — A method of administering law. 

Patriarchal Gtovernment. That in which the 
law is administered by the head of the family or 
tribe, called a Patriarch, Chief, Sheik, etc. 

Absolute Monarchy. That form of govern- 
ment in which the will of the sovereign is unre- 
strained by legislative enactment. 

Limited Monarchy. That form of government 
in which the power of the sovereign is restrained 
by a constitution and laws. 

Democracy. That form of government in whicli 
the people choose their own rulers, and make their 
own laws. 

Republic. That form of government in which 
the people choose their own rulers; also, repre- 
sentatives to make their laws. It is also called a 
Representative Democracy. 

16. 

BRANCHES OF GEOTICS. 

Geography. That branch which treats of the 
Earth's surface ; also, of the phenomena of land, 
water, and atmosphere. 

Geology. That branch which treats of the 
structure of the earth and the causes of the exist- 
ing: aiTan«;ement of the mineral masses in the 
earth's crust. 

Mineralogy, That branch which treats of the 
inorganic materials of the earth; their composition, 



DEFINITIONS. 23 

properties, relations and classification; also, of tlie 
means of determining them. 

Chemistry. That branch which treats of the 
elements of matter; their nature and properties; 
their laws of combination and decomposition ; also, 
of the means of combining and separating them. 

Botany. That branch which treats of plants ; 
their habits, habitations, uses, and classification ; 
also, of the means of determining them. 

Zoology. That branch which treats of animals ; 
their structure, habits, habitations and classifica- 
tion ; also, of the succession and distribution of 
the various classes, orders, genera, and species of 
the earth. 

17. 

BRANCHES OP THERAPEUTICS. 

Anatomy. That branch which treats of the dif- 
ferent parts of organized bodies; their composi- 
tion, construction, and arrangement. 

Physiology. That branch which treats of the 
functions and properties of the different parts of 
organized bodies ; also, of vital phenomena, their 
causes, methods, and aims. 

Pathology. That branch which treats of dis- 
eases, their nature, symptoms and causes. 

Hygiene. That branch which treats of the pre- 
servation of health. 

Medicine. That branch which treats of the 
cure or alleviation of disease. 

Physopathy. The cure of disease by attending 
to the demands of the system, as indicated to the 
patient himself by his feelings and desires. 



24 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Allopathy. The cure of disease by inducing 
a condition of tlie system ojoposite to, or incompat- 
ible with that essential to the disease. 

HoMcEorATHY. The cure of disease by inducing 
in the patient affections similar to the disease. It 
is accomplished chiefly by minute doses of medi- 
cine. 

Hydropathy. The cure of disease by the inter- 
nal or external application of water. 

Electropathy. The cure of disease by the 
application of electrical currents to the system, or 
part affected. 

Motorpathy. The cure of disease by rubbing 
or kneading the parts affected. 

18. 

DIVISIONS OF mathematics. 

Pure, or Abstract Mathematics. That divis- 
ion of the subject which considers quantity, apart 
from any particular substance, time, or space. 

Mixed, or Applied Mathematics. That divis- 
ion of the subject which considers magnitude or 
number, as applied to some definite substance, 

time, or space. 

19 

BRANCHES OF PURE MATHEMATICS. 

Arithmetic. That branch which treats of Num- 
bers ; their properties, laws, proportions ; also, of 
the processes involved in their applications. 

Geometry. That branch which treats of space, 
in all its varied forms, portions, and relations ; 
also, of the processes involved in determining 
magnitudes in known units. 



DEFINITIONS. 25 

Analysis. That bran eh which treats of Quan- 
tity, and makes use of letters of the alphabet to 
express numbers, and of signs to express opera- 
tions. 

Algebra. The application of Analysis to Arith- 
metic. 

Analytical Geometry. The application of 
Analysis to Geometry. 

Calculus — Differential and Integral. That 
branch of Mathematics, in which infinitesimal 
differences are used as a means of investigation 
and calculation. 

20. 

BRANCHES OF MIXED MATHEMATICS. 

Book-Keeping, or Commercial Arithmetic. 
That branch which treats of the application of 
Arithmetic, to all transactions of trade; and of such 
a record of transactions, as enables a person to as- 
certain the true state of his business, at any time. 

Mensuration. That branch which treats of the 
means of ascertaining the exact quantity of sur- 
face or solidity, contained on or in the different 
forms and portions of matter. 

Surveying. That division of Mensuration which 
treats of determining the limits, and area of land ; 
also, of dividing lands proportionally. 

Navigation. That branch which treats of the 
means of directing and measuring the course of 
ships, by the application of geometrical principles, 
or by astronomical observations. 

Astronomy. That branch which treats of the 



26 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

celestial bodies; their magnitudes, motions, dis- 
tances, periods of revolution, and eclipses. 

21. 

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS. 

Mechanics. That branch which treats of force 
and motion ; their properties, laws and applications, 
either directly or through machinery. 

Hydrostatics. That division of Mechanics 
which treats of the equilibrium and pressure of 
fluids at rest, and of their properties and laws. 

Hydraulics. That division of Mechanics which 
treats of the motions, and forces of elastic fluids, 
as air and steam. 

Acoustics. That branch which treats of sound; 
its cause, nature, laws, and phenomena. 

Pyronomics. That branch which treats of heat ; 
its causes, nature, laws, phenomena, and applica- 
tions. 

Optics. That branch which treats of light, and 
vision ; their causes, nature, laws, and phenomena; 
also, of the construction and use of instruments, 
designed to modify light, or aid vision. Such in- 
struments are always constructed on mathematical 
principles. 

Electrics. That branch which treats of Elec- 
tricity ; its development, nature, laws, phenomena, 
and applications; also, of the construction and use 
of the various instruments designed for the devel- 
opment and application of the agent, or the eluci- 
dation of the principles involved. 

Physical Astronomy. That branch which 
treats of the celestial bodies ; their nature, their 



DEFINITIONS. 27 

phenomena, the laws by which their motions are 
governed, the forces by which their motions are 
maintained, and their influence on each other. 

22. 

BRANCHES OP TECHNICS. 

Agriculture, That branch which treats of the 
cultivation of fields for the purpose of producing 
roots, fruits, and grains, for the use of man 
and beast ; also, the raising and feeding of animals 
useful for food or labor. 

Horticulture. That branch which treats of 
the cultivation of gardens, for the purpose of pro- 
ducing vegetables, for immediate home consump- 
tion ; also, ornamental and medicinal plants. 

Pomology. That branch which treats of the 
cultivation of fruits; also, of their preservation, 
and preparation for market. 

Manufactures. That branch which treats of 
working, by hand or machinery, any raw material, 
as obtained from the earth, the agriculturist, or 
the miner into any form more suitable for use. 

23. 

BRANCHES OF GRAPHICS. 

Drafting. That branch which treats of repre- 
senting objects by lines, with mathematical pre- 
cision ; such representations being used as guides 
by mechanics in construction. 

Architecture. That branch which treats of 
the construction of houses, and other buildings, 
for purposes of civil life. 



28 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Navitectuhe. That branch which treats of the 
construction of ships, other vessels, and boats, for 
navigation, or home purposes. 

Civil Engineering. That branch which treats 
of the construction of railroads, canals, docks, 
bridges, roads, and other public works. It is dis- 
tinguished from Military Engineering, which treats 
of matters pertaining to war. 

24. 

BRANCHES OF POLEMICS. 

Strategy. That branch which treats of the 
management of an army, in such a manner as to 
diminish or destroy an enemy's forces. 

Tactics. That branch which treats of the man- 
agement and drill of different portions of an army 
• — as the fleet, artillery, cavalry, and infantry. 

MiiJTARY Engineering. That branch which 
treats of the construction of camps and fortifica- 
tions ; also, of the means of conducting a siege or 
blockade. 

Gunnery. That branch which treats of the 
management of ordnance, and other fire-arms. 

Fencing. That branch which treats of the 
sword, its use in attack or defence. 

25. 
branches of cosmics ; or the fine arts. 

Painting. That branch which treats of repre- 
senting objects on surfaces, by the proper applica- 
tion and arrangement of light, shade, and colors. 

PfiOTOGRArHY. That branch which treats of 
representing objects on surfaces by the chemical 



DEFINITIONS. 29 

action of liglit, on yarious substances. It is divid- 
ed into various sub-branclics ; as daguerreotyping, 
ambrotyping, petroleotyping, etc., depending on 
the material of tbc surface on ^hicli the picture is 
taken. 

Engravixg. That branch which treats of pro- 
ducing letters, figures, designs, or pictures, on 
seme hard substance, for the purpose of being 
subsequently printed on paper. 

Sculpture. That branch -u'hich treats of carv- 
ing, cutting, or hewing wood, stone, or metal, into 
images, to represent real or imaginary objects. 

Music, That branch which treats of the pro- 
duction and combination of agreeable sounds, in 
such a manner as to constitute melod}^ or harmony; 
also, of the properties of sounds, and their relation 
to each other. 

Poetry. " The music of the soul." That 
branch which treats of the production of such 
thought, and the use of such metrical language, as 
will excite the imagination, and gratify the taste. 

Dancing. "The pcetry of motion," That 
branch which treats of the motion of the human 
form, in measured and graceful steps, curves, gyra- 
tions, and figures, usually in harmony with music, 
and regulated by it. 



METHOD 

OF USING THE GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF 
KNOWLEDGE IN TEACHING. 

This Classification is an introduction to every 
branch taught in every grade of school; District 
School, Seminary, or College, No teacher should 
commence any subject, at least with scholars who 
are able to read fluently, and intelligently, without 
pointing out the relation of that branch to other 
branches, and its location in the circle of the Sci- 
ences. Knowledge exists too much in eddies, and 
detached parcels, in most minds, even of our better 
class of teachers. The relations, scope, and sym- 
metry of the various branches, are almost entirely 
neglected, and they are studied as they are taught, 
as having no connection with each other ; and not 
unfrequently, without teacher or scholar perceiv- 
ing any relations existing between his subject, and 
any existing object in heaven, or earth, save the 
text-book, and an examination day. 

The true teacher may lay a broad foundation 
for every subject, outside of his text-book, in the 
presentation of this, or some similar outline of his 
subject with its related subjects. 
(80) 



~~1 



METHOD OF ITSING. 31 

In opening a school, or in commencing a term, 
when scholars have no lessons prepared to recite, 
this General Classification of Knowledge, in part, 
or entire, forms a very appropriate and interesting 
introduction to all the branches to be taught in 
the school. Scholars, especially the younger class- 
es, should not be required to copy it all, but only 
such parts as are more directly connected with 
the branches they are designing to j)ursue. 

The student of Grammar, for instance, when 
somewhat advanced in the study, will find new 
light and interest, in discovering its relations with 
the other branches of Phrenics, and the other de- 
partments of Literature. The grand division. 
Literature, with its four Departments, and the 
Branches of Phrenics, might be copied into his 
Note Book or Copy Book. The definitions should 
also be copied, (unless scholars supply themselves 
with the printed classification,) and committed to 
memory. 

Again ; the student of Arithmetic, especially if 
reviewing, should acquaint himself with the vari- 
ous divisions of Mathematics; and should take a 
comprehensive view of the whole field, by means 
of that Department of the general classification 
and the definitions, given in The Normal; and the 
explanations which any competent teacher could 
add. 

So in other branches. Teachers and students 

should, in the commencement, and in the reviews, 

bring up the Department in which the Branch is 

located, and give on the blackboard, all the sister 

2* 



32 GENERAL OUTLINE. 

branclies, witli tlieir definitions. Should any 
branch be taken up, which is not found in the 
General Classification, it will probably find its 
place as a division of one of the branches given. 
Conchology, for instance, is a division of Zoology; 
Meteorology is a subdivision of Geography ; Uran- 
ography is a division of Physical Astronomy. 



— ^ 

1 



PART II. 
ORTHOEPY 

AND 

ORTHOGRAPHY, 



.^mm^ 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 

The Editor takes pleasure in acknowledging 
the important aid afiforded by Mr. C. S. Royce, 
Agent of the Ohio State Phonetic Association, in 
the preparation of this part on Orthoepy and Or- 
thography. It is confidently believed that through 
him the most approved views of Phoneticians 
have been made subservient to a more systematic 
and useful presentation of the principles involved 
in the connection of the written and spoken ele- 
ments of our language than in any work that has 
hitherto appeared. 

(34) 



INTRODUCTION. 



LOCATION AND BEARINGS. 

In commencing every subject of instruction, it 
is the first business of the Teacher to direct his 
own attention to the place that subject holds in 
the Grand Circle of the Sciences. He may aid 
himself, by consulting the General Classification of 
knowledge, contained in Part I. If his pupils are 
sufficiently advanced, they should be required to 
copy his presentation of so much of that classifi- 
cation as he may think desirable, on the black- 
board ; and having learned the definitions, they 
should reproduce it from memory on the board, 
and give the definitions. 

In this manner, both teacher and scholar will 
discover the true location and bearing of whatever 
subject they undertake. 

Primary and secondary scholars, however, in 
reading and spelling, would hardly be profited by 
a consideration of the General Classification ; but 
all scholars more advanced would do well to ascer- 
tain what Branch they are studying while they 
are learning to spell. 

A presentation of Phrenics and the definitions 
of the branches it includes, place this matter in 
its proper light. 

(.35) 



36 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE NATURAL ORDER OF THE BRANCHES. 

The first study of the child is the voice of its 
mother. Almost instinctively it recognizes it, and 
gathers much meaning from its varied tones and 
accents. At a very early period the child is able 
to distinguish, also, many articulate sounds, and 
their signification. No sooner does it do this, 
than it endeavors to reproduce these sounds in the 
expression of its desires and feelings. 

Orthoepy, then, being the first study by nature ; 
it is proper that art should fall in with the plan. 
There is no advantage, however, in beginning any 
course of instruction till children are able to com- 
municate and receive ideas readily by means of 
spoken language. When instruction does com- 
mence, let it'be so much in accordance with nature, 
with the child's nature, that he shall not conceive 
a repugnance for knowledge, that years will not 
eradicate. 

Orthoepy is but an introduction to Orthography. 
Then, Orthography serves as an introduction to 
Reading and Composition ; and these arc indis- 
pensable in the pursuit of all other branches. 

METHODS OF TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

The common or a-b-c method of teaching the 
alphabet is as serious an obstacle as can well be 
devised, in the way of the child, to hinder his 
progress, and render instruction repulsive; yet 
millions have lived through it, in spite of all the 
horrors of the passage. It is not to be wondered, 
however, that so many ever after hate their books 
and persist in ignorance and vice. 



INTRODUCTION. 37 

To show the absurdity of the plan : the child 
is compelled to call twenty-six shapeless charac- 
ters by their meaningless names, until he learns 
them. After he has learned them, he is worse off 
than before, so far as their use is concerned. These 
names only mislead the child as to the true power 
of the letters, and are constantly in his way in 
finding out the sound of any of them in any of 
their combinations. 

Take, for instance, a in hat, or hall ; e in met, 
or hate. What idea of the sound of these letters 
in these words is obtained from their names? If 
any, a false idea, which the teacher has to correct 
by long drilling. 

The sounds or powers of letters unincumbered 
with these delusive names, can be obtained with 
great rapidity, if letters are so used as to be reli- 
able. The Phonotypic alphabet presents letters 
of a reliable character to children; and when they 
learn a letter, it has not to be unlearned or learned 
over again from two to five times, involving every 
word in which it occurs in almost impenetrable 
obscurity. 

But the objector says, " The child has to learn 
the common alphabet after all, even after he has 
learned the Phonotypic with its forty-three charac- 
ters. " I answer, that is true, but he learns it 
without effort on the part of the teacher. Having 
got the scent of ideas in words of Phonotypic let- 
ters, he will search them out in the Romanic, and 
will thread their mazes with an avidity so keen 
that he will compel his mother to aid him, rather 



38 INTRODUCTION. 

than be himself compelled by his teacher, against 
a repugnance that is continually increasing. 

The use of the Romanic Alphabet may be 
learned by means of the Phonotypic, in one-tenth 
of the time, and with one-fiftieth of the labor be- 
stowed by the teacher in the common method. 

TEACHING SPELLING. 

The charge is brought against our modern 
schools, that "children do not learn to spell." It 
is further urged that they are crowded through 
the higher branches, while they cannot write a 
friendly letter without misspelling half of the 
words. Our teachers should be so trained^ as to 
leave no ground for this charge; hence, much 
space is given in this number to the various meth- 
ods of teaching Spelling or Orthography. 

ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

The subject of Orthography is beginning to as- 
sume its proper place in our County Examinations 
of teachers. Many Boards are adopting the prac- 
tice of testing the knowledge of candidates by 
some plan of orthographic parsing. 

A complete system is developed in this work, 
which reaches all that is desirable to be known in 
the analysis of spoken and written words. Not 
only is a form given for the purpose, with explan- 
ations, but a great variety of words is analyzed 
by the form. So that if a teacher carefully study 
these examples, he never can be at loss for the 
proper method of disposing of any class of words 
or combinations of sounds, or letters. 



LANGUAGE. 



HISTORY. 
1 

OIIIGIN OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 
Language was a divine gift. Spoken Lan- 
guage was used undoubtedly by our first parents. 
Adam gave names to all cattle, and to fowls of the 
air, and to every beast of the field, before there 
was a helpmeet for him ; so says the Bible. He 
is also represented as talking directly with that 
Being, from whom he derived the faculty of 
speech, and who trained him in its use. 

Let us. Teachers, remember who was the first 
of our profession ; and not only so, but that no 
profession has been more highly honored, 

2 
ORIGIN OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 

The first account we have of Written Language, 
is the writing of the decalogue on the tablets of 
stone. It is remarked that all the Hebrew char- 
acters except one or two unimportant marks, which 
have since been added to the language, are found 
in the Ten Commandments. 

Before Written Language, Pictures, Monu- 
ments, and Medals were used to commemorate 
events, and to some slight extent to commu- 
nicate ideas between those of the same ao-e. 

These forms, however, represented thinqs, and not 
(40) 



LANGUAGE. 41 

sounds used in words. The KotDanic letters. 



which we use, are evidently derived from the 
Greek letters ; while the Grreek letters, accordino; 
to their historians, were brought by Cadmus from 
Phenieia, B. C, 1493. The Phenician al^Dhabet is 
similar, in some respects, to the Hebrew, as is also 
the Greek. 

Mr. Pitman, in forming his Phonographic 
Alphabet, seems to have imitated the Hebrew 
more nearly than any other, especially in his 
vowel system. Thus we have in the latest and 
most improved form of Written Language, a 
restoration of the original characters to some 
extent, as taught to Moses on Mount Sinai. 

3 
DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. 

Profane History assigns no reason for the mul- 
tiplicity of languages. Sacred History gives us 
an account of the '• confusion of tongues," at the 
Tower, of Babel, and the consequent dispersion of 
mankind. This may account for the existing 
number and variety of languages; or, if, as many 
commentators suppose, the " confusion of tongues" 
refers to a disagreement of the builders in their 
plans, and the consequent irreconcilable quarrels, 
which drove these early inhabitants into diverse 
parts of the earth, then the changes which take 
place in the pronunciation and signification of 
many words in a few years in modern society, 
even though language is fixed by written charac- 
ters, and the diversity of pronunciation in difier- 
ent localities in the same country, where there is 



42 LANGUAGE. 

mucli and frequent intercourse, will show that 
when tribes have wandered far from each other, 
with no written language, with no intercourse, 
their language, though originally the same, will, 
in a few generations, become so changed as to 
become entirely unintelligible to others than the 
tribe or tribes in more immediate proximity. The 
great diversity of languages ceases to be a won- 
der, then, even though men were originally of one 
blood, used one language, and no miracle inter- 
posed to confound their language. 

4 
TIME OP HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT. 

Both Greece and Kome, at the time of their 
highest political power, enjoyed the greatest refine- 
ment in the arts and sciences. Language is no 
exception to the rule. Gradual improvement may 
be traced in the style of their authors from the 
earliest historical dawn of those nations to the 
period of their highest glory respectively. This 
improvement may be noticed in all the qualities 
which constitute excellence of language ; some of 
which are precision, euphony, flexibility, and sus- 
ceptibility of nice shades of difi'erence in expres- 
sing thought or feeling. 

At the present time, the several spoken langua- 
ges have attained a higher degree of polish and 
power than at any previous period. Among these 
modern languages, the German is highly cultivated 
for the expression of thought, and the Italian for 
the exhibition of the emotions ; while the Eng- 
lish yields to no other in its strength, flexibility, 



r 



LANGUAGE. 43 

and delicacy of expression for both thought and 

feeling. 

5 

CHIEF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANCIENT AND 

MODERN LANGUAGES. 

This lies in the more highly mechanical struc- 
ture of their verbs and nouns ; the nouns of the 
ancient languages having more methods of de- 
clension, and each declension more terminations 
than any of the modern nouns. This variety of 
termination gives equal precision, with much 
greater latitude of arrangement. The cases ot 
modern nouns are determined to some extent by 
their position with relation to the verb. The 
cases of ancient nouns depend entirely on their 
termination, and not in the least on their position 
in the sentence. Hence the ancient languages 
give a better opportunity for securing harmony in 
the arran2;ement than the modern. 

The verbs of the ancient Ian2:ua2;es are much 
more complete in their terminations, and of course 
make use of less auxiliary verbs. None are nec- 
essary save that denoting being, which is used only 

in the passive voice. 

6 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

1. Language. Any method of communicating 
thought or feeling. 

2. Natural Language. Instinctive methods 
of communicating thought or feeling. 

Remark. Brute animals possess their own 
instinctive forms of language; many of which 
forms are understood by other species than those 
which use them. 



44 LANGUAGE. 

Artificial I/Anguage. That which must bo 
learned before it can be used. 

Vocal Language. That produced bj the 
organs of speech. 

7 
"Written Language. Any method of commu- 
nicating thought by visible characters, depicted on 
a surface. 

Symbolic Language. That form of written 
language in which the characters are designed 
to represent ideas and not sounds. 

Phonetic Language. That form of written 
language in which the characters are designed 
to represent sounds. 
Pictorial Language. That form of symbolic 
I language in which the ideas are plainly repre- 
j sentcd. 

! Hieroglyphic Language. That form of 
' symbolic language in which the ideas are so 

obscurely represented as to need an interpreter. 
i Syllabic Language. That form of phonetic 

I language in which the characters represent syl- 
] lables. 

i Alphabetic Language. That form of pho- 
I netic language in which the characters represent 
! separate articulate sounds. 

I Equivocal Alphabetic Languages. Those 
in which a letter represents more than one sound, 
I and in which a sound is represented by more than 
j one letter. 

I The Unequivocal Alphabetic Languages, 
I are those in which the number of letters equals 
; the number of separate articulate sounds — giving 



LANGUAGE. 45 

but one sound to each letter, and but one letter for 
each sound. 

G-ESTic'JLATE L.VNauAGE. Any method of 
communicating or impressing thought or feeling, 
by motions, postures, or appearances of the animal 
form, not producing or representing articulated 
sounds or written characters. 

8 

General or Universal Grammar. That 
form of grammar which treats of all those princi- 
ples and usages which are common to all lan- 
guages. 

Particular Grammar. That form of gram- 
mar which treats of all those principles, usages, 
characters, and sounds, comprised in any particular 
Ian2;ua2;e. 

English Grammar. That branch which treats 
of the English language. 

9 

Orthoepy. That division of grammar which 
treats of articulate sounds, and of their correct 
use in pronunciation. 

Orthography. That division of grammar 
which treats of letters, words, and spelling. 

Etymology. That division of grammar which 
treats of the derivation and formation of words. 

Ortiiogeny. That division of grammar which 
treats of the classification of words according to 
their uses. 

Lexicography. That division of grammar 
which treats of the signification of words. 

Syntax. That division of grammar which 
treats of the arrangement of words in sentences. 



46 



LANGUAGE. 



Analysis. That division of grammar, which 
treats of the separation of sentences into their 
elements. 

Prosody. That division of grammar, which 
treats of versification and punctuation. 

General Remark. The definitions of Cognate 
Branches in Phrenics, including Grammar, will 
be found in Part I, pages 16 and 17, Section 10. 



ORTHOEPY. 



Sound. 



Nature, 

Limit of Vibration, 

Rate of progress. 



Organs. 



Articulatory, 

Vocal. 

Respiratory. 



Articulate sounds 



•1 



See Chart 
No, 1. 



Pronunciation, i 



Divisions. 



Rules. 



Articulation, 



Accent. 



1st., 
2nd. 



I" Common, 
Discriminative. 
Emphatic, 
Poetic. 



Methods of Teaching. 



1. Drill in articulate sounds. 

2. Drill in notation of Dictionaries, 

3. Spell words Phonetically. 

4. Parse words Orthographically. 



OETfiOEPY. 



10 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Orthoepy. That division of grammar, which 
treats of articulate sounds, and their correct use 
in pronunciation. 

Sound. A sensation produced on the auditory 
nerve by the rapid vibratory motion of air or other 
elastic substance. 

Re7narh 1. The vibration that produces the 
sound is often called sound, as, we say " sound 
travels," &c. 

Remark 2. Liiyiit of Vibrations. The least 
number of vibrations in a second, that can yield 
a sound to human ear, is 32. The highest num- 
ber is 30,000 ] though other animals may perceive 
vibrations more or less rapid than these limits. 

Remark 3. Rate of Progress. Sound travels 
through air at the rate of seven hundred sixty- 
three miles per hour, or eleven hundred twenty 
feet per second ; through liquids and solids at a 
rate many times greater. 

11 

Organs of Speech. All those distinct parts 

of the human system, which are necessarily used 

in producing the sounds of language. 
(47) 3 



48 ORTHOEPY. 

Articulatory Organs. Those organs of speecli 
which are used in modifying or obstructing sound 
as produced by the other organs. 

They are labia, (lips,) dentes, (teeth,) palatum, 
(hard palate,) uvula, (soft palate,) nasal fossae, 
(cavities of the nose,) larynx, with its cartilages 
and muscles. 

YocAL Organs. Chordae Yocales, (vocal chords.) 
These are two pair of membranes, extending back- 
wards and forwards, opposite to each other, through 
the larynx. They are attached by their two ends 
and one side, to the walls of the larynx, leaving 
an open space between them, through which air is 
drawn in and forced out by the respiratory organs 

Voice or Vocal Sound. That sound produced 
by the vocal chords. 

Remark. The vibration of these chords during 
the emission of vocal sound, may be perceived by 
placing the fingers on the larynx, externally, at 
the projection of Adam's apple. The vibration 
can be detected at no other time. 

Respiratory Organs. Those organs of speech 
used in forcing air through the other organs. 
They aro trachea, (windpipe,) bronchi, (bronchial 
tubes,) pulmo, (lungs,) diaphragm, and the inter- 
costal, dorsal, and abdominal muscles. 

12 

Articulate Sound. That made by the organs 
of speech, and used in language. 

Voiced Sound, or Voice. A sound made by 
the vibration of the vocal chords. 

Vocal Sound, or Vocal. A voiced sound. 



L. 



ORTHOEPY. 49 

modified but not obstructed by the articulatory 
organs. 

Simple Vocal. A vocal, made witliout a change 
in the position of the articulatory organs during 
its emission. 

CoMPouxD Vocal. A vocal, made by a change 
in the position of the articulatory organs, from 
that required by one simple vocal to that required 
by another, during its emission. 

Remarh. This chano'e commences with the 
emission of the sound, and continues until the 
close ; hence the elements of the compounds are 
not heard in their purity. 

CoALEscEXT. An articulate sound, that always 
precedes, and unites with, a vocal. 

13 

SuBvocAL SouxD, OR SuBvocAL. A voiccd sound 
modified and obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

Aspirated Sound or Aspirate. An artic- 
ulate sound made without the vibration of the 
vocal chords. 

Pure Aspirate. An aspirate, modified but 
not obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

Obstructed Aspirate. An aspirate, modified 
and obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

14 

Labial. An articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the lips. 

Remarh. The vocals and pure aspirates are 
'modified only, while the subvocals and the other 
aspirates are obstructed also. 

Dental. An articulate sound modified or 
obstructed at the teeth or gums. 



50 ORTHOEPY. 

Palatal. An articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the hard palate. 

Guttural. An articulate sound, modified or 
obstructed at the soft palate. 

Remark 1st. Sounds are obstructed at the lips 
by the lips alone, or by the teeth and lips. 

Remark 2d. Sounds are obstructed at the teeth, 
gums, or hard palate, by the tip of the tongue ; 
and at the soft palate, by the root of the tongue. 

15 

Abrupt, (also called Explodentand Mute.) An 
articulate sound, made by such a perfect contact 
of the organs as entirely prevents the escape of 
air externally. 

Continuant, (also called Subvocal.) An artic- 
ulate sound, made by such partial contact of the 
organs, as to admit of escape of air externally. 

Liquid. A continuant, susceptible of simulta- 
neous combination with other obstructed sounds. 
The liquids are I and r. 

Nasal. A continuant, made by the escape of 
air through the cavities of the nose only. 

Cognate Sounds. Those sounds made by the 
articulatory organs, in the same positions, and dif- 
fering only in the vibrations of the vocal chords. 

16 

Pronunciation. The enunciation of the sounds 
of a word with correct articulation and accent. 

Articulation, (joining.) The distinct enun- 
ciation of the sounds in words. 

Accent. The greater stress given to one sylla- 
ble of a word than to others; also, the greater 
force given to long syllables in poetry. 



ORTHOEPY. 



51 



Common Accent. That given in the ordinary 
pronunciation of a word, without reference to any 
other word. 

DiscRimNATivE Accent. That given to words 

of the same articulation to distinguish different 

parts of speech. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Nouns from Verhs. Ac'cent, accent'; con'cert, 
concert'; in'sult, insult', etc. 

2. Adjectives from Verhs. Ab'sent absent'; com'- 
pound, compound'; fre'quent, frequent', etc. 

Emphatic Accent. That in which the stress 
is transferred from the ordinary syllable to another, 
for the purpose of giving antithetic emphasis more 
distinctly. 

Poetic Accent. That which is placed on long 
syllables of a poetic foot ; even though those syl- 
lables should be monosyllabic words. 



17 
METHODS OF TEACHING PRONUNCIATION. 

DRILL IN ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

Commence with vocals as given in Chart No. 1. 

1. Repeat each long sound twice in order. 

2. Direct the class to do the same in concert 
with yourself. 

3. Direct the class to do the same without your 
aid. Continue this process until the large major- 
ity make the sounds correctly, and in the order of 
the chart. 

4. Drill individuals failing, before the class, in 
groups, or singly, till each pupil masters all the 
difficulties. 



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(52) 



w to 



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pro- 

uants 


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"spunog a^T?inoiijy 



(53) 



COGNATES. 



^ 
O 



ft 



Chart No. 2. 



-S # ^ '""s w co« — . y-i * 



O 
fcJ3 

.a 

CD 
ce 

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(54) '1 a s T 



ORTHOEPT. 55 

5. Pursue the same course with the short vocals. 

6. Alternate the cognate vocals on Chart No. 2, 
and in case a cognate is wanting, say " wanting." 

7. Repeat and vary these drills until every 
scholar can go through the vocals long and short, 
and name the organ at which the sound is modi- 
fied. 

9. Pursue a similar course with the obstructed 
sounds beginning with the aspirates and follow- 
ing with the subvocals on Chart No. 1 ; then with 
cognate sounds, on Chart No. 2. 

18 

DRILL I?T THE NOTATION OF DICTIONARIES. 

Take Chart No. 3, and go over in concert, the 
names of sounds as given, with the sounds follow- 
ing, and the notation of any dictionary used in 
school. 

Thus : Long a — a, notation a. with a short horizontal 
mark over it. 

Short a — a, notation a, with a curved line over it. 

Broad a — o, notation a, with a circumflex over it. 

Italian a — q, notation a, with a diaeresis over it. 

Medial a — ^, wanting in Webster's dictionary. 

This will be sufficient to show the drill on the 
notations. It need be followed no further in this 
form. 

2. Require the scholars to look out words in 
their dictionary, and describe the marks to signify 
the irregular sounds of the consonants, as city, 
cane, off, of, church, chaise, etc. 
3* 



56 ORTHOEPY. 

19 

SPELLING WORDS PHONETICALLY. 

1. This should be practiced more or less in con- 
nection with every exercise, in concert, the Teach- 
er accompanying; next, the class in concert without 
his aid, lastly, individual scholars, always giving 
opportunity for the members of the class to criti- 
cise the spelling of the individuals, — they first 
raising their hands for permission to do so. 

2. Let the Teacher select such phonotypic char- 
acters in order, from Chart No. 1 or No. 2, as shall 
form words. The class will pronounce each sound, 
as its representative is touched with the pointer, 
until the elements of a word are thus separately 
pronunced, then, a signal given, they are expected 
to pronounce the word together. This exercise 
should begin with monosyllables, and from these 
proceed to the most complicated and difficult 
words. 

20 

CRITICISM ON PRONUNCIATION. 

In recitation of all studies, opportunity should 
be given the classes for mutual criticism on pronun- 
ciation, as well as in other particulars. 

This matter of criticism is managed thus : 

The teacher asks, " Are there any errors in pro- 
nunciation ?" 

Pupils who have noticed errors, raise their 
hands. 

The teacher calls upon such a scholar as is least 
in the habit of criticism, to mention the error. 



r 



ORTHOEPY. 



57 



The scholar does it in this form : "Mr. A. B. 
pronounced 'heard' 'heerd.' He should have 
given the close sound of e rather than the long." 
The scholar continues, "he pronounced 'demon- 
strate' ' demonstrate,' accenting the first syllable 
instead of the second." 

In case of doubt in the mind of any one, either 
pupil or teacher, a scholar is requested to examine 
the authorities, Worcester's or Webster's diction- 
ary, which should always be on the teacher's table, 
and in the pupil's desk. 









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(58) 



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159) 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Forms. 



Italic. 
Typical. \ Roman. 

ODlb QEnglisI). 

[ORNAMENTAL, 



Grammatical. 



Rhetorical. 



(Capital, 



Classes. 
Rules. 



Large, 
Small. 



(Small. 

Italic, 

SMALL CAP. 

LARGE CAR 
Bold Faced. 



Sizes. - 



Diamond. 

Agate, 

Peari. 

Nonpareil, 

Minion, 

Brevier, 

Bourgeois, 

Long Primer, 

Small Pica, 

Pica, 

English, 

Great Primer. 



Arrangement in Classes, ) I See Chart 
Genera, Species, etc. \ \ No. 3. 

Renresentation \ ^^ P^^P®'' representatives, 
representation, j g^ substitutes. 



(60) 



ORTHOGRAPHY.— Continued. 















to 




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ta 


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O 


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(61) 



ORTHOGKAPHY.— Continued. 




I i 



OKTHOGRAPHY. 



21 

Orthography. That division of grammar 
which treats of letters, syllables, words, and spel- 
ling. 

Letter. A visible character, representing by 
itself, or with one or more besides, an articulate 
sound; also used to determine signification. 

Typical Forms. These are given in the names 
that distinguish them in the classification. There 
are many ornamental forms in use, not given. 

Grammatical Forms. These are used for em- 
emphasis or other rhetorical distinction. 

Power of a Letter. The sound which a 
letter represents in a word; also the influence 
which one letter exerts upon the representative 
character of another. 

22 

YowEL. A letter used to represent a vocal 
sound ; the basis of a syllable. 

Consonant. A letter used to represent a sub- 
vocal or aspirate sound, modifying the basis of a 
syllable. 

Remark. Phonographers write many syllables 
without a vowel as a basis, contending that a sub- 
vocal is often the basis of a syllable, e.g. apple, 

often. They claim that there is no vocal heard in 

(63) 



64 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the second syllable, and that they should be writ- 
ten apl, oftn, or ofn. It seems to me, however, 
more in accordance with the principles of our 
orthography to consider a vocal, accented or unac- 
cented, plain or obscure, as the basis of every syl- 
lable. 

Aphthong, or Silent Letter. A letter which 
represents no sound, but is used either to modify 
the representative character of another, or merely 
to determine signification. 

Remark. An aphthong may be a vowel or a 
consonant aphthong, according to the more com- 
mon use of the letter. 

Explanation. E^ in the word lade, changes the 

sound of a from short to long; also ^, in sign, 

changes the sound of i short to long; also w in 

write, determines the signification of the word, 

and distinguishes it from that of rite ; also, h in 

dumb, determines signification, since dum has no 

signification. 

23 

Diphthong. One or two vowels, representing 
a combination of two vocal sounds. 

Explanation. The diphthong i represents a 
combination of Italian a and Ions: e. 

The diphthong long u represents a combination 
of long e and close o. 

The diphthong ol represents a combination of 
broad a and short {. 

The diphthong ou represents a combination of 
Italian a and close o. 

These are all the proper diphthongs in the 
English Language. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 65 

A Vowel Digraph, or improper diphthong, is 
a combination of two vowels, in which only one 
receives a sound, the other being a modijSer. 

A CoNJOiisTED YowEL DiGRAPH is One in which 
the two vowels are not separated by a consonant. 

A Disjoined Vowel Digraph is one in which 
the two vowels are separated by one or more con- 
sonants. 

A Consonant Digraph is a combination of two 
consonants, one or both of which are required to 
represent a sound. 

Remark. A consonant not required to repre- 
sent a sound of the word, is an aphthong, whether 
modifying the representative character of a letter 
or not. Thus, in the consonant digraph gn^ in 
the word condign, the g modifies the sound of ^, 
but is not necessary for the representation of the 
final sound, and hence is an aphthong. 

A Combined Digraph is a combination of a 
consonant and a vowel to represent a subvocal or 
an aspirate sound. 

Explanation. The consonant t, and the vowel i 
are used in the terminal syllable iion^ to represent 
the aspirate sound of sh or ch. Ci, ce, and si, are 
used in a similar manner. 

Vowel Trigraph. A combination of three 
vowels, representing one or two sounds. 

Remark. Eaii in heau, represents one sound; 
in heaufy, it represents two combined. 

Disjoined TraORAPH. One in which a conso- 
nant occurs between two of the vowels. 



66 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

25 

Syllable. One or more sounds uttered at one 
impulse of the breath ; also, the letters represent- 
ing any sound or sounds so uttered. 

Ultimate Syllable. The last syllable in a 
word. 

Penultimate Syllable, or Penult. The last 
syllable but one in a word. 

Antepenultimate Syllable. The last sylla- 
ble but two in a word. 

Pre antepenultimate Syllable. The last syl- 
syllable but three in a word. 

Remarh. The syllables of a word are also 
described in their numerical order, commencing at 
the left, as first, second, third, &c. 

Base of a Syllable. The vocal or vowel 
used in its formation. 

Modifier. Any sound preceding or succeed- 
ing the base of a syllable, or letter or digraph 
representing such sound. 

Antecedent. Any sound preceding the base 
of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing 
such sound. 

Consequent. Any sound succeeding the base 
of a syllable; or letter or digraph representing 
such sound. 

Remarh. A letter representing a sound, pre- 
ceding another, is parsed as an antecedent, though 
the order of the letter should differ from that of 
the sounds represented by them. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 67 

26 

"Word. The received sign of an idea, expressed 
in one or more articulate sounds, or in visible 
characters representing sucli sounds. 

Simple Word. One wliich cannot be divided 
into separate words without radically altering the 
signification. 

Compound Word. One which can be divi- 
ded into separate words without radically alter- 
ing their signification. 

Primitive Word. One which cannot be re- 
duced to a simpler form, without radically altering 
its signification. 

Derivative Word. One which can be re- 
duced to a simpler form, without radically altering 
its signification. 

Remark. A compound word is considered 
primitive, if all its parts are primitive, otherwise 
a derivative. A derivative is considered simple, 
unless it plainly comes under the definition of a 
compound. 

The Base of a Compound Word is that word 
representing the fundamental idea. 

The Modifier in a Compound Word is that 
word which describes the other. 

The Base of a Derivative Word is the prim- 
itive word from which it is derived. 

The Modifiers in a Derivative Word are the 
prefixes or suffixes, or both. 

Prefix. One or more syllables, not used as a 
word of similar meaning in the English language, 
but placed before words to modify their significa- 
tion. 



1 I 



68 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Suffix. One or more syllables, not used as a 
word of similar meaning in the English language, 
but placed after words to modify their significa- 
tion. 

27 

Monosyllable. A word of one syllable. 

Dissyllable. A word of two syllables. 

Trisyllable. A word of three syllables. 

Accented Syllable. One that is pronounced 
with more force than others in the same word. 

Remark 1. Accent may be primary when it is 
greater than that received by some other syllable 
in the same word; or secondary, when it is less 
than that received by some other syllable in the 
same word. 

Remark 2. In prosody, an accented syllable is 
long in quantity, an unaccented syllable, short in 
quantity, i. e. of time taken to pronounce it. 

28 

Spelling. A distinct expression of the letters 
or sounds of a word, in their proper order. 

Orthographic Spelling. The expression of the 
letters, of which a written word is composed, and 
in their proper order, according to the received 
authority. 

Phonetic Spelling. The separate expression 
of the elementary sounds of which a word is com- 
posed, and in their proper order, according to es- 
tablished usage. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 
Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its 
orthography and signification. 



Rule 2. 
doubt. 

Rule 3. 

Remark. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 69 

Consult the dictionary in case of 



Apply tlie rules for derivatives. 

The special rules for spelling are to 
be found in every good grammar, and spelling- 
book, and need special attention. All grades, 
except primary, should be thoroughly drilled in 
their use. It is not enousrh to memorize them. 
More than one-half the bad spelling found in 
school exercises, as well as in business operations, 
may be justly charged to ignorance of these 
special rules. 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 



29 
teacher's preparation. 

The preparation necessary for tlie successful 
teaching of Phonotypy, the all-important prepara- 
tion, I might say, is a thorough practical knowl- 
edge of the articulate sounds of our language: 
an ability to enunciate them distinctly, either sep- 
arately or in combinations, and to give such direc- 
tions to others as will, when followed, enable them 
to do the same. 

30 
preparation of pupils. 

The only preparation necessary for the pupils, 
is, that they should be of a proper school age, that 
the school should be properly organized, and that 
the teacher should so gain the confidence of his 
young pupils by a pleasant conversation, or other 
means, as to lead them to speak and act with the 
freedom of children in a well-regulated home. I 
very much prefer that they should know nothing 
of any alphabet. 

31 

teaching the articulate sounds. 

The first effort in imparting instruction should 
be to give them some knowledge of articulate 
sounds. In doing this, avoid the use of techni- 
calities. Select a few such words as saw^ sai/, so^ 
(70) 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 71 

see^ and taking one of them, as saw^ call upon the 
pupils to speak it carefully a few times. The 
teacher should now resolve it into its elements; 
enunciating them at first, with a long pause, as, 

s e, then with less and less pause, as, 

s e, s e, s - - - 0, s - - 0, s - 0, 

leading them, if possible, to perceive that those 
sounds, if enunciated by one impulse of the voice, 
would constitute the word saw, without his thus 
uttering them. But if this can not be done, the 
teacher may pronounce the word; after which, he 
should separate it into its elements, and proceed 
as before. 

Now he should take the elements of another 
word, as, say^ without calling their attention to 
the word by pronouncing it, and enunciate their 
elements, as in the other case; asking after each 
enunciation, what the word would be if the sounds 
were spoken together. Generally, if this is skil- 
fully managed, there will be a correct response ; 
after which the sounds should be uttered more 
and more rapidly, to show them clearly that they 
were right. 

Now, take another word, as, see, using special 
care that they shall perceive from the separate 
elements, what word they constitute. 

32 

TEACHING TO READ. 

If we have succeeded thus far in cultivating our 
pupils' powers of observing sound, there will be 
little trouble in teaching them the letters that 
represent those sounds. 



72 TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

Calling their attention to the first sound in 
"see, " let us print upon the blackboard the letter 
"s" as the representative, the '■'■picture'''' of that 
sound. We should now cultivate their powers of 
observation, by calling upon them to find a simi- 
lar letter on the charts ; of which there should be 
at least two suspended before the class: also, 
among the tablets. ( These are pieces of card-board 
with a letter upon each?) As each child finds the 
letter on a chart or on a tablet, he should enun- 
ciate the sound represented. 

The name of the letter should not be taught 
them. If any of them, already knowing the 
name, should call the letter " Es^ " say " Yes, that 
is its name, but what sound does it represent? 
What sound are you to make when you see it ? 

33 

LESSON SECOND. 

Review the first lesson, calling their attention, 
as before, to the analysis of "saiy, say, so, see, " and 
to " s " as the representative of the initial sound 
of those words. Now teach them "8" as the rep- 
resentative of the final sound in " see. " 

34: 

COMBINING LETTERS TO REPRESENT WORDS. 

The pupils have already discovered that sounds 
combined form spoken words ; and they now 
know the representatives of two sounds. The 
combining of these representatives may now be 
taught them. Print those letters on the black- 
board thus : 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 73 



S - - - - 8 
S - - 8 

S8 

Now call upon them to enunciate tliose sounds, 
as you point to the letters. Pass the index slowly 
from one letter to the other in the upper line, and 
more rapidly as you descend, until they blend the 
two sounds, and pronounce the word " see. " 

Printed cards, with the lessons on them, should 
also be used, but they should not supersede the 
use of the black-board. 

35 

SUBSEQUENT LESSONS. 

Proceed in a similar manner to teach them the 
letters a, 9, m, and w; and they will read several 
words and a few sentences. They should now be 
taught to spell by sound all the words they can 
read ; after which they may learn other letters, 
always using each new letter in combination with 
familiar ones. 

The Phonetic Primer should be given to the 
children at this stage, and they should be permit- 
ted to read from it in connection with the black- 
board and charts. Some teachers succeed finely 
with the black-board and Primer, without charts 
or tablets. 

36 

WORDS OF THREE LETTERS. 

When they are to be taught words of three let- 



<4 TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 

ters, familiar words of two letters, followed by a 
tliird letter also familiar, may be presented on the 
black-board tbus : 

b^: ----- S 

h^ - s 

The class should pronounce the word h^, and 
then enunciate the sound represented by s, as the 
teacher points from the one to the other, moving 
his index more and more rapidly, until uncon- 
sciously they find themselves pronouncing the 
word h^S. Other words, as met, mat, tam, 
should be taught by similar means. 

Now take the tablets, and show them a similar 
word, as ms, and after they have pronounced it, 
drop the hand that holds the word, and with the 
other hand present a tablet having the letter t on 
it. The class will enunciate it ; when the other 
hand should be raised and the tablets held so as 
to form the word met. 

Then, with the right hand, present the m only, 
and after the enunciation of the sound, remove 
that hand, and present the word Et with the other. 
After they pronounce the word 8t, prefix the m to 
it, and they will pronounce the word mct. If 
they fail to pronounce the word at the first trial, 
make another efl"ort. By no means pronounce the 
word for them. Manage skilfully, and the pro- 
nunciation of the word will come from the class. 



TEACHING THE ALPHABET. 75 

37 

Now take other words of three letters, and pro- 
ceed with them in the same manner : choosins: 
such as will leave icords, after removing either the 
inital, or the final letter, as mat; which, by remov- 
ing the initial letter, leaves at, or the final leaves 
ma. 

After this, when a pupil, in reading, comes to a 
word of three letters, which he cannot pronounce, 
instead of pronouncing it for him, hide the initial 
or final letter from his view, and after the remain- 
der of the word has been pronounced, permit him 
to see the whole word, and, usually, he will pro- 
nounce it. 

Longer words may be taught them in a similar 
manner. 

After all the Phonetic letters are learned, the 
children should continue reading Phonotypy until 
they can read well in the Second Phonetic Reader ; 
after which they may make the transition to Ko- 
manic reading. 



i '- 



TEANSITION TO ROMANIC READING. 



38 

I must caution the young teacher against per- 
mitting his pupil to make the transition too soon. 
Children sometimes make the transition success- 
fully, after having barely read the Phonetic Prim- 
er, but sometimes they find it very difficult. But 
by waiting, as I have suggested, nothing is neces- 
sary but to permit them to read in the Second 
Reader of any series, and it will be found that 
they will need much less instruction than children 
reading in the same book that were taught in the 
common way, and they need no special instruction. 
They may be taught as others are. 

39 

SPELLING. 

"Without the direct aid of the teacher, they will 
now have learned the names of the Roman letters, 
and they may be taught the common orthography 
as other children are ; and it will be found that 
they will by far excel children taught in the com- 
mon way, not only in articulation, but in spelling 
also. 

40 

EMPLOYMENT FOR THE CHILDREN. 

What has been written refers only to class in- 
(.76) 



SPELLING. 77 

struction. For employment between recitations, 
the children should be permitted and encouraged^ 
not required and compelled^ to print on slates all the 
exercises they read, copying them from the exer- 
cises placed on the black-board by the teacher, or 
from cards suspended before them, or from their 
Primers. 

41 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY TO PRIMARY CLASSES. 

Many teachers use no other Spelling Book than 
the E-eading Books ; thus teaching their pupils to 
spell the words they are daily using in their les- 
sons. In this way they have, or should have, a 
correct idea of the meaning of the words of their 
spelling lessons, though they may not, at this early 
age, be able to define them. 

42 

STUDYING SPELLING LESSONS. 

While making, and after having made, the tran- 
sition from the Phonetic print, children should be 
required to study spelling lessons. The best way 
to do this is to print them on their slates, until 
they learn the script form of letters ; when they 
should use that form, or write their lessons. The 
practice of requiring pupils to study their lessons 
a given number of times, only teaches them to 
hurry over their siudi/, and not to study to any 
purpose. It is not the number of times a lesson 
has been studied that should be considered the 
mark of success, but the ability to spell every ivord 
in the lesson. 



78 PRIMARY TEACHING. 

43 
MANNER OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS IN SPELLING. 

We cannot vary tlie mode of conducting spelling 
recitations as much as with the more advanced 
classes. One very good method, and perhaps the 
best one, is to require them to read the lesson 
from their slates ; each one pronouncing a word, 
and then spelling it and again pronouncing it. 

Every pupil should give notice of any mistake 
observed, by raising the hand. In this way, the 
teacher can ascertain whether they have studied 
their lessons aright. The side of the slates, con- 
taining the lesson, should be held up to the teacher 
for criticisms : and the criticisms should embrace, 
not only the size and appearance of the letters, 
but the proper arrangement of the words in col- 
umns. 

The slate should now be laid down on the reci- 
tation seat or on the floor, with the side containing 
the lessons from the pupils, and the words pro- 
nounced for them once, and only once ; and a pu- 
pil should be permitted to try to spell the word, 
once, and only once. If he cannot spell it on the first 
trial, he has not learned his lesson ; and he is now 
on the floor to be examined in reference to that 
matter, and not to learn his lesson. 

It is a good plan, frequently, to call upon some 
pupil in the class to pronounce the words for the 
class, under the eye and ear of the teacher. If a 
word is misspelled, it should be made a part of the 
next lesson. 



SPELLING. 79 

SECURING THE ATTENTION. 

Pronouncing a word but once, will go far to- 
wards securing the attention of every pupil; but 
in addition to this, when a word is misspelled, an- 
other pupil should be called upon to spell it with- 
out being spoken to. A movement of the eye, or 
hand, or some other sign, is all the notice that is 
necessary, if the pupils are giving their attention ; 
and a failure on the part of the pupil to receive 
this notice, should be considered as much a failure 
as the misspelling of a word. 

45 

KEEPING UP AN INTEREST. 

A variety of methods may be resorted to, 
though not as great a variety as with older pupils. 

The class may commence all standing, as each 
one spells he may sife- down, until all are seated. 
The class may then rise in order as they spell, un- 
til all are up. The practice of having a head and 
foot to a class is often resorted to, and with good 
effect, if properly managed. If this practice is 
found to discourage any in the class, it should be 
abandoned. 

A better method is for the teacher to call on the 
scholars at the close of the recitation for the num- 
ber each one has missed, which should be recorded, 
and have a bearing on the grade of the tickets 
given them to take home weekly. 

The respelling of misspelled words by those who 

misspelled them, and then by the class in concert, 

is another method. 
4* 



80 PRIMARY TEACHING. 

46 
SPELLING WITH OTHER RECITATIONS. 

In reading exercises, if a word is mispronounced, 
attention should be called to its ortliography. In 
their exercises in Mental Arithmetic, words that 
they use, and other words, should occasionally be 
ipelled by the pupils, and so in other studies. 



TEACHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY 
CLASSES. 



47 
EemarJcs. — I make use of no spelling book, but 
assign a definite part of a reading lesson as a spel- 
ling lesson. The advantage of this is, that schol- 
ars learn the forms of words in connection with 
their use in sentences, and associate their forms 
rather with their signification than with their pla- 
ces on the page of the spelling book. 

What teacher has not seen instances, in which a 
scholar could spell every word in the Spelling 
book, perhaps, without any one to "put out the 
words; " while, if called upon to write an essay, 
or a letter, that same scholar would misspell the 
most common words? Such words, as, there their, 
are air, two too to, plain plane, are almost cer- 
tainly misspelled in writing by spelling book spel- 
lers. 

48 

ORAL METHOD. 

Let the class stand in a line, in order of their 
numbers as determined at the close of the last 
spelling exercise ; save that No. 1 takes his place 
at the foot of the class. 

Pronounce a word for No. 2, who now stands at 
the head. He spells it. All in the class who 

(81) 



82 SECONDARY TEACHING. 

think lie spelled it wrong, will raise the hand. If 
the word was spelled right, those who raised their 
hands go below those who did not: all the schol- 
ars of each kind keeping their relative places with 
those of the same kind ; but all the scholars who 
were mistaken will take their places below all who 
were right in their opinion of the spelling as given 
by scholar No. 2. 

If the scholar misspelled the word, then the 
first scholar in order who raised his hand is called 
upon to spell the word, then the next, and so on 
till all who thought the word mispellcd are tested. 
Those who are thus tested and fail, then take their 
places below with those who indicated that they 
thought the word spelled correctly, by not raising 
their hands. 

This method never fails to secure the attention 
of all in the class, and involves no confusion or 
disorder, if the teacher follow the direction of 
keeping every scholar of each kind in his place 
relatively with others of his own kind. The two 
kinds being: first, those who spell correctly or in- 
dicate correctly by raising their hands or not rais- 
ing them ; and second, those who spell incorrectly 
or indicate incorrectly, it being understood that 
all who show that they were mistaken take their 
places below all who show that they were right. 

Successive scholars are called upon to spell 
words, and the same indications taken and the 
same course pursued, till the time allotted for the 
exercise is exhausted. 



SPELLING. 83 

At the close of tlie exercise, the teacher calls 
upon each member of the class, as he has him en- 
rolled in his class book, for the number of times 
he was mistaken in his opinion of the spelling, 
and he is graded accordingly. 

The class is then dismissed in order, No. 1 
speaking his number and going to his seat; No. 2 
following in the same manner. So of all the rest. 

Short sentences, or phrases, containing as many 
words as the class can well recollect, may be pro- 
nounced at once, instead of single words. This 
method has the advantage of more distinctly im- 
pressing the meaning of words in connection with 
their spelling 

TEACHING SPELLING TO SECONDARY CLASSES BY 
USE OF SLATES. 

Words or sentences, which have been studied, 
are dictated to a class of scholars sitting on a rec- 
itation seat or at their desks, till perhaps they 
have written twenty words, each, on their slates. 
Slates are then exchanged. Some scholar is then 
called upon to give orally the spelling of the first 
word written on the slates. Teacher says, " How 
many agree? " All who think his spelling right, 
raise the hand. Teacher says, " How many disa- 
gree?" All such raise the hand. Teacher notes 
those who are wrong. Teacher then says, "How 
many slates are wrong?" All who have slates 
with the word incorrectly spelled, raise their slates 
to a vertical position on their knees, or on their 



84 SECONDARY TEACHING. 

desks. They are then called on in order, to give 
tlie correct spelling ; or, to save time, the teacher 
says, after one has given an incorrect spelling, 
" How many slates have that spelling ? " He thus 
continues with the word till he gets all the false 
spellings and determines also the bad spellers. 

The next word is then taken up and treated in 
a similar manner. 

It takes much time to describe this method, but 
it is really the most expeditious and thorough 
method of getting at the knowledge of a class, 
and makes a more durable impression, perhaps, of 
the correct spelling and of the evil of bad spelling 
than any other method that has ever been devised 
for secondary scholars. 

50 

ANOTHER METHOD WITH SLATES. 

Let the teacher write one or more sentences, 
which the scholars have studied, on the black- 
board, with many of the words misspelled, involv- 
ing such errors as the class would be most likely 
to fall into. 

The scholars sitting at their desks are required 
to copy the matter on the black-board, and to cor- 
rect the errors in spelling and capitals. The 
teacher afterwards examines their slates or papers, 
and grades them according to the accuracy, or 
want of it. 



ORTHOGRAPHY TO ADVANCED CLASSES. 



51 

1. Criticism of Reports Written on the 
Black-board. — The criticism of spelling comes 
next in order after the criticism of pronunciation. 
It is done by the class in the usual way by raising 
the hand at the instance of the teacher. 

Illustration. — A scholar in an advanced class in 
Grammar has had the subject of the noun assigned 
to him, on which to give a report before the class. 
Having had a day for preparation, he writes out 
the classification of his subject on the black-board 
from memory.^ without referring to notes or book. 
He then gives, in the order of his classification, 
all necessary explanations, definitions, and illus- 
trations of the subject, orally. When the pupil 
has gone through with his report, the teacher calls 
on the class for criticisms ; first, in pronunciation; 
second, in spelling ; and so proceeds with the other 
items till the subject is thoroughly sifted. 

52 

2. Criticism op Compositions. — The teacher 
notes words misspelled in compositions, by draw- 
ing a lead mark under them. The scholar is re- 
quired to go to his dictionary and obtain the 
correct spelling of these words, and to make a rec- 

(85) 



86 TEACHING HIGHER CLASSES. 

ord of tliem in the two forms in a blank book, 
which he keeps for this purpose, called The Spel- 
ing Book. Every advanced scholar, who is not 
an accurate speller, should have such a book. 

These spelling books are arranged with two 
columns on each page, one headed with the name 
of the pupil, the other with the name of the au- 
thor of the Dictionary which he consults. In the 
column under his own name, he writes his bad 
spelling. In the other column, he writes the cor- 
rect spelling according to his authority. 

Scarcely will a scholar fall into a second blunder 
with regard to the spelling of a word, after having 
made such a record of his error. 

Teachers must, of course, have a regular and 
definite time for examining these spelling books, 
or they will soon fall into neglect. Without them, 
the criticisms on bad spelling in compositions, 
will not amount to much. 



ADVANCED METHODS OF TEACHING. 



53 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY CHARTS. 

The metliods of using the charts are explained 
in articles 21 to 28. 

These charts can be copied in an enlarged form 
by the teacher, or by scholars, on to one or more 
large sheets of printing pa|3er, with a crayon. 
Charts of orthography are sold frequently for two 
dollars. Such a chart would cost the teacher not 
over a half dime, incrluding paper and crayon, and 
will serve as good a purpose as the most expensive. 
If scholars are permitted to make such charts, 
they have the advantage of learning them by the 
process, and of cultivating their taste in drawing 
and writing. 

54 

TEACHING ORTHOGRAPHY BY DERIVATIVES. 

It is an excellent practice to give spelling les- 
sons in the derivatives. Let the teacher propose 
two or three roots for a lesson : as, press, act, etc. 
The scholars, at the recitation, are required to 
write as many derivatives as they have been able 
to obtain ; either on their slates, or on the black- 
board. They should, of course, be provided with 
dictionaries in the preparation of such a lesson. 

They can also make use of tables of prefixes and 

(87) 



tS8 ADVANCED TEACHING. 

suffixes. They will also bring into use tlie spec- 
ial RULES for spelling derivatives. 

The definitions of the derivatives should be re- 
quired as a part of the exercise. Many teachers 
make use of Mc Elligott's or Town's analysis. 
The exercise can be made very profitable without 
them, with the use of a dictionary and the tables 
of prefixes and suffixes defined. 

These tables can be copied from Mc Elligott 
on to large sheets of paper and into the "spelling 
books" of the pupils, as described in article 52. 

55 

Examples in formation of derivatives, with the 
rules for spelling, according to Goold Brown. 

WITH SUFFIXES. 

Act. a primitive word, signifying to do or to 
make. 

Actor. The person who acts. 

Actress. The female who acts. 

Action. The result or process of acting. 

Acts. Does act. 

AcTEST. Dost act. 

AcTETH. Does act. 

Acted. Did act. 

Acting. Continuing to act. 

Actionable, xidmitting of an action. 

Actionably. By admitting an action. 

AcTioNARY. I A person who has a share in an 

Actionist. j action. 

Active. Inclined to act. 



._j 



SPELLING. 89 

Activity. "j Rule VI. | c The state or qual- 
AcTivENEss. J Rule VII. I j ity of being active. 
Actively. Rule VII. In an active manner. 
Actual. Real in acting; or beinsr. 

. r The state of bein^ actual. 

ACTUALNESS. ) 

Actually. In an actual manner. 
Actuate. To cause to act. 

WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

CoACT. To act together with force. 
CoACTiox. The process of coacting. 
CoACTivE. Inclining to coact. 
Counteract. To act against. 
Counteraction. The process of acting against. 
Enact. To act in makins; a law. 
Enactment. The process or result of enacting. 
Inactive. Without action. 
Inaction. An inactive state. 
Inactively. Rule VII. In an inactive man- 
ner. 

Inactivity. Rule VI. An inactive state. 

Exact. — Verb. To act in forcing out of. 

Exacting. Continuing to exact. 

Exaction. The process or result of exacting. 

Exactor. The person who exacts. 

Exact. — Adjective. Acting from rule. Accurate. 

Exactly. In an exact manner. 

" * r The state of being exact. 

Exactitude. ) 

React. To act again. To act back. 

Reacting. Continuing to react. 

Reaction. The process of reacting. 



90 ADVANCED TEACHING. 

Reactive. Inclining to react. 
Reactively. Rule VII. In a reactive manner. 
SuBACTioN. The process of acting to place 
under. 

56 

Pel. An inseparable radical word, signifying 
to drive or force. From Pello, Pulsus. With the 
only suffix — 

Pulsion. The act of driving. 

With prefixes and suffixes — • 

Compel. Compelled, Rule III. Compelling, 
Rule III. Compulsion. Compulsive. Compul- 
sively, Rule VII. Compulsiveness, Rule VII. 
Compulsory, etc. 

57 

From the root Press, nearly two hundred deriv- 
atives can be obtained. From the inseparable 
root Gress, a long list can be formed. 

These two examples, Act and Pel, will be suffi- 
cient to illustrate the method of spelling by the 
use of prefixes and suffixes in forming derivatives 
from separable and inseparable primitives. 

58 

DRILLING ON THE SPECIAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 

The class should be required to memorize these 
as they are given in the grammar used, with the 
exceptions and remarks. They should so memor- 
ize them, that they can give them as they are called 
for by the teacher promiscuously. They should 
then be required to write, or spell orally, words as 



SPELLING. 91 

tliey are dictated, or pronounced from tlie exam- 
ples contained in the grammar, under each rule, 
in order, until every scholar shows that he is able 
to apply the rules correctly. 

Sentences may then be dictated for writing, con- 
taining derivative words coming under the rules 
promiscuously. 

Sentences may be written on the board by the 
teacher in which these rules are violated. The 
scholars are expected to rewrite the sentences on 
slates or paper, with references by number to the 
rules which were violated. 

This course should be pursued day after day, 
for weeks, until the scholars have formed the habit 
of noticing the application of these rules in spel- 
ling. 

"We find that the larger part of misspelling in 
the compositions of advanced scholars, is in viola- 
tion of these rules, until they have been thor- 
oughly drilled in them. 



OETHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 



EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

The following lists of words are selected with the design of 
bringing in as large a variety of combinations both of syllables 
and letters as possible. It is presumed that the teacher, by care- 
fully eximining the methods by which these words and the 
letters and sounds of which they are composed, are disposed of, 
under the FoRM OF Orthographic Parsing, given on page 62, 
will be able to parse any Avords, letters or sounds in the language. 

List of wurds analyzed : — 

Pin, Called, Through, Ewe, Manlike, Inkstand, Condition. 

List of words whose letters and sounds are analyzed : — 

Sound, Cbaise,Xetiophon, Rough, Lough, Phthisic, Motion,FiliaL 

List of words parsed orthographically in full : — 

Impossibility. 

In commencing to teach Orthographic Parsing, it is well to 
divide the subject, and, at first, drill the class on word'^, includ- 
ing spelling, afterward upon letters and sounds, and finally com- 
bine the two. 

DRILL ON WORDS INCLUDING SPELLING. 

/'wi is a simple, primitive, monosyllable, spelled orthographi- 
cally (naming the letters) p, i, n, and phonetically (enunciating 
the sounds) p, i, n. 

Called is a simple, derivative monosyllable, except in poetry, 
where it is soraetiuies a dissyllable, accented on the first. As a 
derivative, its bass is cnll, modified by the simple suffix, ed, sig- 
nifying did. The signification of called is, did name, summons, 
invite, &c. Spelled orthographically, c, a, ll,e, d, phonetically, 
k, 9. 1, d. 

Thravgli is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, ortho- 
graphicalij^ t, h, r, o, u, g, h ; phonetically, t, r, cd. 

Ewe is a simple, primitive monosyllable. Spelled, orthograph- 
icallv, e. w, e, phonetieally, y, i|,. 

Manlike is a compound, primitive dissyllable, accented (slight- 
ly) on the first. Spelled, orthographically, m, a, n, 1, i, k, e. pho- 
netically, m,a. n,], j, k. The base of the word is man. ; which is 
modified by the word like, signifying resembling in manner, or 
appearance. The signification of the word is, resembling a man. 

Inkstand is a compound, primitive dissyllable, accented on the 
first. Spelled, orthographically, i, n, k, s, t, a. n,d, phonetically, 
i, J), k, s, t, a, n, d. The base of the word is stand, modified by 



(92) 



ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 



93 



the word ink, signifying (here,) a fluid for writing. The word 
signifies a vessel for holding the fluid. 

Condition is a simple, primitive trisyllable, accented on the 
second ; spelled, orthographically, c,o, n,d, i, t, i,o,n, phonetically, 
k,o, n,d,i,;,o, n. 



DRILL ON LETTERS AND SOUNDS. 

Sound. S is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the sylla- 
ble, ou, and represents its own proper sound, s ; {enunciate the 
sound,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums by a partial 
contact of the organs: producing a dental and a -continuant. 

Ou, the base of the syllable, is a diphthong, representing its 
own proper sound, ■» ; {enunciate,) which is an open, compound 
vooal, modified (in the commencement of the sound,) at the soft 
palate, and at the conclusion at the lips. 

N is a consonant, and the immediate consequent of the base of 
the syllable, representing its own proper sound, n; {enu?iciate,) 
which is a subvocal, obstructed a-t the hard palate by a contact 
made perfect there, but with an opening of the nasal cavities, 
through which there is an escape of air externally, and, hence, 
obstructed by a partial contact of the organs; producing a pala- 
tal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

D is a consonant, and the remote consequent of the base of 
the syllable, representing its own proper sound, d; {enunciate,) 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the teeth or gums, (at the 
teeth by some, and at the gums by others,) by a perfect contact 
of the organs, producing an abrupt, and a dental. 

CAaise. Ch is a Cdusonant digraph, the antecedent of the base 
of the syllable, ai, final e, and represents the sound of sh, J; 
{enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the hard palate, 
by a partial contact of the organs ; producing a palatal and a 
continuant. 

Ai — e, the base of the syllable, is a disjoined trigraph, repre- 
senting the long sound of a, a ; {enunciate,) which is a long, 
simple vocal, modified at the hard piilate. 

S is a consonant, having its position between the parts of tho 
disjoined trigraph, which forms the base of the syllable, and rep- 
resents the sound of z, z ; {enunciate,) which is a subvocal, ob- 
structed at the gums by a partial contact of the organs ; produc- 
ing a dental and a continuant. 

Xenophon. X is a consonant, antecedent to the base of the 
first syllable, e. and represents the sound of z, z: {enunciate,) 
which is a subvocal, obstructed at the gums, by a partial contact 
of the organs ; producing a dental and a continuant. 

E, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing the 
short sound of e, e ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the hard palate. 

N is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the first sylla- 
ble, and represents its own proper sound, n: {enunciate.) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 



94 ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 



own long sounil, a; {enunciate,) which is a long, simple vocal, 
modified at the lips. 

Ph is a consonant digraph, antecedent to the base of the third 
syllable, o, and represents the sound of f, f ; (enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the 
organs, producing a labial and a continuant. 

0, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the short palate. 

N is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the third sylla- 
ble, and represents its own proper sound, n; {enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, and is obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
contact of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a 
nasal. 

Rougli. R is a consonant and is antecedent to the base of the 
syllable, ou; representing its own proper sound, r ; {enunciate,) 
"which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
contact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant and a 
liquid. 

Ou, the base of the syllable, is a conjoined vowel digraph, rep- 
resenting the short sound of u, u ; {enunciate,) which is a short, 
simple vocal, modified at the hard palate. 

Gh is a consonant digraph, and the consequent of the base of 
the syllable, representing the sound of f, f; {enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the 
organs; producing a labial and a continuant. 

Loxtgh. L is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of 
the syllable, ou ; representing its own proper sound, 1 ; {enunci- 
ate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a 
partial contact of the organs, producing a palatal, a continuant 
and a liquid. 

Ou, the base of the syllable, is a vowel digraph, representing 
the sound of short o, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple 
vocal, modified at the soft palate. 

Gh is a consonant digraph, and the consequent of the base of 
the syllable, representing the sound of k, k; {enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact 
of the organs ; producing a guttural and an abrupt. 

Phthisic. Ph are two aphthongs and remote antecedents of 
the base of the first syllable, i, and are used to modify the repre- 
sentative character of the digraph th, and to determine the sig- 
nification of the word. 

Th is a consonant digraph, and the immediate antecedent of 
i, the base of the first syllable, representing the sound of t, t; 
{enunciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or 
gums, by a perfect contact of the organs, producing an abrupt 
and a dental. 

1, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel representing its own 
bhort sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, modi- 
fied at the teeth. 

S is a consonant, the consequent of the base of the syllable, 
and represents the sound of z, z ; {enunciate,) which is a subvo- 
cal, obstructed at the gums, by a partial contact of the organs ; 
producing a dental and a continuant. 



ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 95 

I, the base of tho second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, i ; [enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the teeth. 

C is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla- 
ble ; representing the sound of k, k ; {enunciate,) which is an 
aspirate, obstructed at the soft palate, by a perfect contact of the 
organs ; producing a guttural and an abrupt. 

Motion. M is a consonant, and the antecedent of o, the base 
of the first syllable ; representing its own proper sound, m ; 
{enunciate,) which is a subvocal, obstructed at tho lips, by a par- 
tial contact of the organs ; prodncing a labial, a continuant, and 
a nasal. 

0, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own long sound, o; {enunciate,) which is a long, simple vocal, 
modified at the lips. 

Ti is a combined digraph, and the antecedent of o, the base of 
the second syllable ; representing the sound of sh, J ; {enttnciate,) 
which is an aspirate, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial 
contact of the organs ; producing a palatal and a continuant. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing 
the sound of short u, u ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple 
vocal, modified at the hard palate. 

N is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the sylla- 
ble, representing its own proper sound, n ; {enunciate,^ which is 
a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a nasal. 

Filial. F is a consonant, a«d the antecedent of the base of 
the first syllable, representing its own proper sound, I"; {enun- 
ciate,) which is an aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a partial 
contact of the organs ; producing a labial and a continuant. 

1, the base of the first syllable, is a vowel, representing its own 
short sound, i; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the first 
syllable ; representing its own j roper sound, 1 ; {enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at tie hard palate by a partial contact 
of the organs; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. 

I is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing the sound of y, y ; {enunciate,) which is a 
vocal and a coalescent, modified at the teeth. 

A, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, a; {enimciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, 1; {enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate, by a partial contact 
of the organs ; producing a palatal, a continuant, and a liquid. 



DRILL IN FULL ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

Impossibility is a simple, derivative polysyllable, accented on 
the fourth and second syllables. Possible, the base of the word, 
is modified by the prefix im, s'lgnifying not, and the suffix ity, 
signifying the state or condition. The word signifies, " that 
which can not be." 



96 ORTHOGRAPHIC PARSING. 

It is spelled, orthograpliically, i, m, p, o, s, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t,y, and, 
phonetically, i, m, p, o, s, i, b, i, 1, i, t, i. 

I is a vowel, the base of the first syllable, representing its 
own short sound, i ; {eminciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

M is a consonant and the consequent of the base of the first 
syllable, representing its own sound, m; {eiivnciate,) which is a 
subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a partial contact of the organsj 
producing a labial, a continuant and a nasal. 

P is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own sound, p; {enunciate,) which is an 
aspirate, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contactof the organs; 
producing a labial and an abrupt. 

0, the base of the second syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, o; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

S is a consonant, and the consequent of the base of the second 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, s; {enunciate,) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the gums, by a partial contact of the 
organs; producing a dental and a continuant. 

1, the base of the third syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal. 

B is a consonant, and the antecedent of the base of the fourth 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, b; (enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the lips by a perfect contact of the 
organs ; producing a labial and an abrupt. 

I, the base of the fourth syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, i; {enunciate,) which is a sho;t, simple vocal. 

L is a consonant, and the subsequent of the base of the fourth 
syllable, representing its own proper sound, 1 : {enunciate,) which 
is a subvocal, obstructed at the hard palate by a partial contact 
of the organs ; producing a palatal, a continuant and a liquid. 

I, the base of the fifth syllable, is a vowel, representing its 
own short sound, i ; {enunciate,) which is a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the teeth. 

T is a consonant and the antecedent of the base of the sixth 
syllable: representing its own proper sound, t ; {enunciate.) which 
is an aspirate, obstructed at the teeth or gums, by a perfect con- 
tact of the organs : producing a dental and an abrupt. 

Y, the base of the sixth syllable, is a vowel, representing the 
short sound of i, i ; {enunciate,) which ia a short, simple vocal, 
modified at the teeth. 



I _ 



Px\KT III. 

GRAMMAR. 

METHODS OF TEACHING ORTHOGENY, 

SYNTAX, AND ANALYSIS. 



INTEODUCTION. 

PROPER AGE FOR COMMENCING THE STUDY OP 
GRAMMAR. 

There is no subject of school study about wh»ich 
there is a greater disparity of opinion prevailing 
among teachers than that of the age at which chil- 
dren may commence the study of Grammar. 

Some teachers would have children commence 
Grammar as the first stvdy in books after they 
have learned to read well, or even before ; others of 
our best educators would defer it till the faculties 
of the mind are all measurably developed; a third 
class would not have Grammar studied at all, as a 
distinct science. I conceive that, by an adapta- 
tion of which the subject is susceptible, children 
may commence Grammar as soon as they can read 
fluently and intelligibly. Geography may be in- 
troduced before children can read fluently, as a 
means of securing study in reading lessons, and of 
training the hand and eye in drawing maps, I 
should, therefore, introduce Geography at this 
point, in this volume, were it not for breaking in 
upon a systematic arrangement of the branches. 

Object lessons in common things, and Natural 
History; also experiments in Chemistry and Natu- 

(99) 



100 GRAMMAR. 

ral Philosophy, may well precede the study of 
Grammar also. 

ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. 

No lesson should be required of a young pupil in 
the text-book, till he has had a preliminary drill ; 
and the teacher is satisfied that he comprehends 
the subject so far as his lesson in the text-book 
extends. 

Should the teacher fail in making the class, or 
any member of a class, understand any particular 
part of the subject, by the preliminary drill, it 
would be worse than in vain to require such a class, 
or individual, to memorize it from the text -book. 
Such a pupil or class must lay aside that subject 
for awhile, and take up some other more simple ; 
or, lay aside the study of Grammar till the mind 
is more matured. 

THE METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILL. 

The main object of the following pages, given to 
PRIMARY TEACHING, is to illustrate and exemplify 
the method of preliminary drill, preparatory to 
lessons to be memorized from the text-book. 

A similar course has been pursued with numer- 
ous classes in the Model Department of the Normal 
School, and Grammar has never failed to be a treat 
for the children. 

THE ORDER OF LESSONS. 

The order pursued in the following pages, in 
taking up the different subjects for lessons, is that 
of simplicity; commencing with the most simple 



INTRODUCTION. 101 

and obvious of subjects, viz : the noun, and pro- 
ceeding with its modifications and classes, as tbe 
child can bear them, and so advancing to other 
parts of speech and their modifications and classes, 
till the whole ground shall have been passed over 
in its plainest form. All exceptions, idioms, and 
irregularities, save such as are obviously violations 
of rules, are studiously avoided in this method of 
primary teaching, as tending to confuse the mind 
by too great a degree of complexity and obscurity. 

METHOD OF INTRODUCING RULES. 

No rule should be introduced till the necessity 
for it is understood by the class. There is, then, 
no difficulty in their memorizing it even in the 
oral drill. Children will thus obtain the great 
fundamental principles of construction, of syntax, 
while they are learning to distinguish the parts of 
speech, their classes and modifications. 

WRITING EXERCISES. 

There are many advantages in the plan of writ- 
ten exercises proposed in parsing; some of which 
are : 1st. It secures study in the preparation of a 
'parsing lesson^ which otherwise might be evaded 
under various pretexts. 2d. It affords a means of 
teaching spelling, as explained in article 52, pagf 
85. 3d. Rapid improvement in penmanship can 
be secured by close attention to this matter on the 
part of the teacher. 4th. It paves the way to 
composition, by the scholars taking a part of the 
difficulties, before entering upon them in combina- 



102 GRAMMAR. 

tion. 5tli. It effects the more equal advancement 
of a class, by securing more equal amounts of ap- 
plication outside of the recitation. 

Remark. — The ordinary writing book may be 
used for this exercise, and the time otherwise given 
to writing from copies. 

GENERAL PLAN OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 

The method of conducting a recitation in G-ram- 
mar, as explained in the subsequent pages, illus- 
trates the general method of conducting recitations 
in all branches. It assumes, that the class is an 
organized assembly, with the teacher for Chairman. 
No scholar has a right to the floor (using parlia- 
mentary language) till he is recognized by the 
teacher. The raising of the hand signifies, that 
he wishes to obtain the floor, but does not give 
him a right to it without the assent of the Chair- 
man. The teacher should be particularly watch- 
ful on this point; otherwise scholars conceive, 
that whenever they raise the hand they may speak. 
Thus the object of raising the hand is defeated, 
and disorder is the result, 

MUTUAL CRITICISM OF SCHOLARS. 

Scholars are required, in the recitations, to criti- 
cise each other. Without special care, on the part 
of the teacher, he will deprive the scholars of this 
privilege by doing too much of it himself. Schol- 
ars will learn vastly more by criticising, than by 
being criticised. " It is more blessed to give than 
receive." 



INTRODUCTION, 103 

They should also be encouraged to criticise each 
other out of school hours — of course, in a kindly 
manner. 

METHOD OF USING PART III. 

For Primary classes in Grammar, it is not sup- 
posed that the teacher consulting this work will 
be governed mechanically by my divisions of the 
general subject into Lessoxs, or that he will follow 
implicitly my arrangement of the j)arts of speech, 
and their classes and modifications, in his Steps. 
With the exception of the adjective and the parti- 
cles, which for want of room are not provided for, 
I conceive the arrangement adopted the best ; 
though other teachers may prefer to follow the 
arrangement of their text-books. 

The main object in view in the preparation of 
these primary lessons will be to exhibit, as clearly 
as possible, the combination of oral instruction 
with memoriter lessons from text-books; and it is 
believed that if a teacher will consult these suc- 
cessive Lessoxs and Steps in his own preparation 
for the successive recitations and exercises, he will 
obtain some hints which may serve as guide boards 
or beacon lights in his course. 

The methods of using the Outlines and Defini- 
tions, etc., under the head of Advanced Teaching, 
will appear sufficiently in connection with them. 

6* 



METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR TO 
PRIMARY CLASSES. 

1 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS, 

Tlie class should be able to read fluently and 
intelligently. They should be provided with 
books, grammars of some kind, and all of the same 
kind. It is not necessary nor desirable that they 
should have primary grammars. The larger and 
fuller grammar has to be purchased, after the 
primary has been used one session. 

Most Normal Schools, throughout the country, 
now make use of either Brown's or Clark's Gram- 
mars as text books. My references will be made 
chiefly to Clark's Grammar, revised edition. 

2. 

LESSON I. 

First Step — Nouns. Let the teacher define a 
Noun in the simplest possible manner, i. e., as a 
name, and illustrate the definition by examples, 
thus: 

Teacher. A noun is a name. Every noun is a 
name, and every name is a noun. Your names 
are nouns, and my name is a noun. Can you 
think of any other nouns? 
(104) 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 105 

The scholars raise their hands. 

Teacher says to one — ^' John, you may mention 
some noun." 

John mentions some name, as "house," "stone," 
"boy." 

Teacher. Why is house a noun, John? 

John. Because it is a name. 

So the teacher should proceed with every mem- 
ber of the class, until all can not only give nouns, 
but can define them correctly. 

o 
O. 

Second Step — Nouxs — Immateriai< Objects. 
As scholars will in the first place select the names 
of material substances, the teacher will secondly 
bring to their notice the names of immaterial sub- 
stances and abstract qualities, thus: 

Teacher. Is mind a noun? As many as think 
it is may raise the hand. 

Several do not raise their hands, perhaps ; among 
whom is Samuel. 

Teacher. Samuel, why is n't mind a noun? 

Samuel. I never saw a mind. 

Teacher. But then you have a mind, I suppose; 
or are you all body and clothes? There are many 
things which you cannot see, which still must have 
names, as we have to talk about them. Did you, 
any of you, ever see the wind? or did you ever see 
a love or a friendship? Yet you do n't doubt that 
you possess and enjoy these things. Each one of 
the class may give such a noun. 

The teacher will then call on the pupils individ- 
ually by name, when such nouns as sound, health, 



r TZZIIIZZZZIIIZZIZIZZZZIZZZI 

106 GRAMMAR. 

goodness, breath, life, death, weight, lightness, 
smell, etc, may be brought out by the class; possi- 
bly some adjective, as new, or soft, or sweet, by 
Jane. 

Teacher. Jane, why is sweet a noun? Did 
you ever see a sweet? 

Jane. No, sir; but I have tasted of a sweet 
apple. 

Teacher. True, you have tasted of an apple, 
and the apple was sweet. But what sort of a thing 
is the sweet without the apple? Now, how many 
of the class can tell me the name of that quality 
of the apple which makes it taste sweet? 

Hands are raised. 

Teacher. Sarah. 

Sarah. Sugar. 

Teacher. Sugar is a substance, not a quality. 

James. Juice. 

Teacher. Juice is also a substance, not a qual- 
ity. If I were speaking of the quality which 
makes the apple sweet, I should not call it the 
sweet of the apple. What would T call it? 

All hands come up, and eyes glisten. 

Teacher. Mary. 

Mary. Sweetness. 

Teacher. Yes, that is the name of the quality. 
Can you give me any other quality of apples? 
Each scholar may think of some quality of an 
apple and give it, when called on. James, what 
quality do you think of? 

James. Hardness. 

Teacher. Susan. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 107 

Susan. Softness. 

The teaclier should pursue this course, till the 
class are familiar with the names of qualities taken 
abstractly. 

4. 

Third Step. Drill in the Grammar; Direct 
the scliolars to turn to page 148 of Chirk's Gram- 
mar, Sentence I. 

Teacher. You may tell me all the nouns you 
see in the second line: "A large ship traversing 
the ocean by the force of the wind." 

James. Ship — ocean — wind. 

Teacher. Why are these words nouns? 

James. Because they are names. 

Teacher. Are there no other names in that line? 

James, perhaps, hesitates. 

Teacher. Class. [Several hands rise.] 

Remark. It will be noticed that when the 
teacher uses the word " Class," that no pupil 
speaks ; but all who are able to respond raise 
their hands. The teacher then calls on some one 
to give the answer. 

Teacher. Mary, you may give me the other 
nouns in that line. 

Mary. Large, and force. 

Teacher. Why is force a noun, Mary? 

Mary. It is the name of something. 

Teacher. Very well. Why is large a noun? 

Mary. It is a name. 

Teacher. Name of what? Did you ever see a 
large? 



108 GRAMMAR. 

Mary. I never saw a force either. 

Teacher. What property of the wind drives the 
ship? Is it not the power of the wind? What 
other name is there for power? Class. [Hands 
rise.] Susan. 

Susan. Force. 

Teacher. Is not force then the name of that 
which drives the ship? Coiikl the wind drive the 
ship, if it had no force? Let us now see about 
large. Is large the name of anything, Mary? 

Mary. Yes, sir ; a large house is a name. 

Teacher. House is a name of that in which 
people live ; but what sort of a thing is a large? 
How many think large is the name of anything, 
now? 

In a similar way, each member of the class may 
be called on to give the nouns in a line. The 
teacher will select such lines from Clark's Gram- 
mar, or any other, as may be best adapted to the 
particular scholar with whom he is dealing. Chil- 
dren will most easily and certainly select the 
names of material objects. 

The lesson assigned for the scholar to learn from 
the book, is, in this case, nothing more than the 
definition of a noun. And the teacher will be 
careful in these primary exercises to require the 
class to learn nothing from the book which he has 
not made plain, and pleasant, in the preliminary 
drill. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 109 

5. 

LESSON II. 

First Step — Recitatiox of Lessox assigned. 

Teacher. How many can define a noun? 

Hands rise ; and tlie teacher calls upon those 
who were the dullest in the previous exercise, to 
give the definition. Having thus satisfied himself 
as to the amount of study bestowed, he proceeds 
to another preliminary drill, on the modifications 
of nouns, taking them in the order of their sim- 
plicity, taking those modifications first, always, 
whicli are the most obvious to the child. 

6. 

Second Step — Number. Teacher. I will tell 
you something more about nouns. They are sin- 
gular or plural. If a noun means one of that 
thine; which it is the name of, it is sinsrular ; if it 
means more than one it is plural. For instance, 
horse is a singular noun, because it means a single 
horse ; but horses is a plural noun, because it 
means more than one horse. 

Teacher. The class, all together. Is bird sin- 
gular or plural? 

The class answer in concert without raising; 
hands when the words "all together" are used. 

Teacher. Is birds singular or plural? 

Class. Plural. 

Teacher. How is it with boy? 

Class. Singular. 

Teacher. Give me the plural of boy. 

Class. Boys. 



110 GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. Is girls singular or plural? 

Class. Plural. 

Teacher. Give me the singular of girls. 

Class. Girl. 

Teacher. Very well; now the plural of fox. 

Class. Foxes. 

Teacher. Box. Class. Boxes. Teacher. Ox. 
Class. Oxes — oli no, oxen. 

Teacher. Very well; try again. Mouse. Class. 
Mice. Teacher. Louse. Class. Lice. Teacher. 
House. Class. Hice — no, no, houses. 

Teacher. You are right now. Again ; Moose. 

Class. Mooses. Teacher. Papoose. 

Class. Papooses. Teacher. Goose. Class. 
Gooses; ha, ha, geese. 

7. 

Third Step — Gtender. Teacher. Now, chil- 
dren, I wish to tell you about gender. The name 
of a male is a noun of the masculine gender. The 
name of a female is a noun of the feminine gender. 
For instance; boy is a noun of the masculine 
gender, girl is a noun of feminine gender. Floor 
is a noun of the neuter gender. 

Teacher. What gender is man? All together. 

Class. Masculine. 

Teacher. How many can tell me why man is 
masculine? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Samuel. Samuel. It is the name of 
a man. Teacher. Jane. Jane. It is the name 
of a female. 

Teacher. What gender is lady? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Mary. Mary. Feminine. 



r' 



PRIMARY TE ACHING. Ill 

Teacher. What gender is desk? [No hands 
rise.] What gender did I tell you those nouns 
were which were neither masculine nor feminine? 
[Hands rise.] Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. Neuter. 

Teacher. Very well. What gender is desk, 
then? [All hands up.] 

Tcaclier. All together. Class. Neuter. 

8. 

Fourth Step — Parsing. The class are now 
prepared to commence the process of parsing. 
The teacher will lead the way by giving an ex- 
ample thus. 

Teacher. You may all look at the first noun 
in the first line of Sentence 1. 148, of Clark's 
Grammar, and I will parse it for you. 

Science is a noun, singular number, neuter gen 
der. Do you think you can parse a word now? — 
[Some hands rise.] 

Teacher. Jane, you may parse mind, in the 
same line. 

Jane. Mind is a noun. 

Teacher. What number? 

Jane. Singular. Teacher. What gender? 

Jane. Neuter. Teacher. Now, you may parse 
it again. Jane. Mind is a noun, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender. 

Teacher. Very well. You may all parse it in 
concert. 

Class. Mind is a noun, singular number, neu- 
ter gender. 

Teacher. Ycry well. Sarah, you may now 
parse ship. 



^_j 



112 GRAMMAR. 

Sarah. Ship is a noiii], neuter gender, singu- 
lar number. 

Teacher. You may all parse ship. 

Class. Ship is a noun, («« confusion) singular 
number, neuter gender, neuter gender, singular 
number. 

Teacher. You may give the number before the 
gender. Take the noun, John, in the line: "I, 
John, saw these things." James, you may parse it. 

James. John is a noun. 

Teacher. Why? James. It is a name. 

Teacher. Go on. James. Singular number. 

Teacher. Why? James. It means only one. 

Teaclier. What gender? James. Masculine. 

Teacher. Very well. You may all parse John. 

Class. John is a noun, singular number, mas- 
culine gender. 

9. 

Fifth Step — Person. Teacher. I will now 
tell you something else about nouns. If a noun 
is the name of the speaker or writer, it is in the 
first person. If it is the name of a j)erson spoken 
to, it is in the second person ; and if it is the 
name of a person or thing spoken of, it is in the 
third person. For instance: John, in the sen- 
tence we have just had, is in the first person, be- 
cause John was the name of the writer. If I 
should say, "George, shut that door," George 
would be in the second person, because it would 
be the name of the person spoken to. But door 
would be in the third person, because it is spoken 
of. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 113 

What person is Daniel, in tlie expression used 
by the King : "0, Daniel! servant of the living 
God?" All together. 

Class. Second person. Teacher. Why? Class. 
Daniel is spoken to. 

Teacher. Now, we will parse a few words. I 
will parse John for you first. John is a noun, 
third person, singular number, masculine gender. 

You may follow the same order in parsing that 
I did in giving person, number and gender. 

Teacher. Eliza, you may parse Esther in the 
second sentence, in Lesson II. 

Eliza parses as directed, in this manner : Esther 
is a noun, third person, singular number, feminine 
gender. 

Teacher. You may all parse it in concert. 

The Class parse in concert. They can be kept 
together by the teacher's beating with his hand, 
or pointer. 

It will be noticed, that no definitions are called 
for, while parsing, as is practiced by most teachers 
and recommended in most grammars, since the 
days of Kirkham. However, if the scholar is 
wrong, or hesitates, showing doubt or ignorance 
of any point, the teacher at once calls for the defi- 
nition necessary to set the scholar right. If the 
scholar parsing cannot give the recjuired definition, 
the teacher says, " Class:" when all who can give 
it raise their hands ; and the teacher calls on the 
scholar most unlikely to give it. If he fails, then 
on another, and so on till the definition is correctly 
given. 



114 GRAMMAR. 

10. 

Sixth Step — Classes of JNouns. Teacher. 
Nouns are divided into two classes, for tlie purpose 
of showing us where to use capital letters. 

General names, or such as apply to many per- 
sons or things, are called common nouns; for the 
reason that they belong in common to many ob- 
jects. The noun man is common ; it belongs in 
common to many persons. James Buchanan is 
called a proper noun; it belongs, properly, or pe- 
culiarly, to one person. I will give you several 
common nouns, and you may give proper names 
that belong to the same class of things. For in- 
stance : under the common noun, girl, we find the 
proper nouns, Susan, Mary, Eliza, etc. 

What proper noun comes under the common 
noun boy? ' 

Class raise their hands. 

Teacher. William. William. Samuel. 

This course may be pursued with each of the 
scholars, until they are all able to distinguish the 
classes of nouns. 

Then the teacher calls on them to parse ; giving 
the class of the noun first in order after the noun, 
then the modifications as before. 

The exercise is closed by assigning to the class, 
for a lesson to be learned from the book, the defi- 
nitions of the two classes of nouns, as well as the 
definitions of person, number, and gender. These 
definitions are pointed out in the grammar by the 
teacher; and some one of the duller scholars is 
asked to show, in his own book, what the lesson 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 115 

is, in order that the teacher may be sure that the 
class understand what they are to learn for the 
next recitation. 

11. 

LESSON III. 

First Step. The recitation of the lesson as- 
signed, and the grading of the scholars according 
to their merits, in the teacher's register. 

12. 

Second Step — Case. Verb. Teacher. Nouns 
have one more property, or modification ; that of 
case. In order that you may understand this prop- 
erty, I shall introduce you to another kind of 
word ; or, as the grammarians call it, another part 
of speech. A verb is a word that denotes action, 
or being, or state of being. 

When I say, "The bird flies," the word flies de- 
notes the action of the bird, or tells what the bird 
does; hence, it is a verb. In the sentence, "Mary 
reads;" reads is a verb for a similar reason. In 
the sentence, " The stone lies on the ground," the 
word lies does not express action, but simply state 
of being. 

Now, you may give me the verbs in these sen- 
tences; all together: " The horse runs." 

Class. (In concert.) Runs. Teacher. Why? 
Class. It tells what the horse does. Teacher. 
Does it denote action or being? Class. Action. 

Teacher. " The boy chops wood." In this sen- 
tence, what is the verb, John? 

John. Chops. Teacher. Why? John. It 
denotes action. Teacher. Very well. 



116 GRAMMAR. 

13. 

The Third Step — Drill in Verbs. Teacher. 
You may now open your grammars to the G5th page 
and find some of the verbs in Sentence I. 

James, in the first sentence, what is the verb, and 
why 1 

Jam.es. Feels, because it denotes action. 

Teacher. Sarah, in the next sentence ? 

Sarah. Rose ; it denotes action. 

This course may be pursued till the class have 
all been reached, and can give the verbs in these 
simple sentences, and the reason for such words 
being verbs. It will be noticed, that ajjpear and 
seems are verbs, because they denote being, or state 
of being. 

14. 

Fourth Step — Subject and Object. Teacher^ 
If I say, "The boy drives a team;" what is the 
subject of the remark, what is the principal thing 
talked about? Class raise their hands. 

Teacher. Susan. Susan. Boy. 

Teacher. Right. The subject of a sentence is 
that word in a sentence about which the verb as- 
serts something. Now, the verb drives asserts an 
action of the subject, boy; and the noun, boy, is 
in the condition of a subject. Grammars call this 
condition the '■ nominative case." They might 
better call it the "subjective case," or condition. 
But, since nearly all grammars agree in this mat- 
ter, we will call it so too. 

Teacher. Let us take the same sentences again. 
What object does the boy drive? 



PRIMARY TEACHINa. 117 

Class raise hands. 

Teacher. Jolin. John. Team. Teacher. Yes. 
Then team is in the condition of an object, and 
we will say, that it is in the objective condition or 
case. 

We can now parse these nouns, boy, and team, 
in full. 

I will parse boy for you, but will first write the 
form by which I parse it, on the board. [The 
teacher writes.] Speciesf Class? Person? Number? 
Gender? Case? Construction? Rule? Now, I will 
parse it by this form ; then, you may all parse it 
by the same form, in concert. The teacher using 
the pointer, as he proceeds, parses thus : Boy is a 
noun, common, third, singular, masculine, nomi- 
native, because it is subject of the verb, drives. 
He then calls on the class to parse the same word, 
guiding them by pointing at the successive ques- 
tions in the form, on the board. The same course 
is pursued with team, the teacher giving, as its 
"construction," "being the object of the verb 
drives." 

The teacher assigns for the next lesson, those 
definitions which he has brought out and exempli- 
fied in this exercise. This lesson is to be studied 
and prepared for the next exercise. The defini- 
tions to be assigned, are these, viz: of the noun, 
common noun, proper noun; gender, masculine, 
feminine; person, first person, second person, third 
person; number, singular number, plural number; 
case, nominative case, objective case. 



118 GRAMMAR. 

15. 

LESSON IV. 

First Step — Recitation. The manner of con- 
duetino- this recitation is this : 

The schohirs being seated on the recitation 
bench, the teacher calls one most likely to fail, by 
name. He or she rises. The scholar rises for 
several reasons. 1st. He feels more responsibility 
in the recitation, when thus made more promi- 
nently the object of observation. 2d. The rest of 
the class can hear what he says more plainly. 3d. 
Other scholars, who are sitting, cannot so easily 
prompt him without being heard by the teacher. 
The teacher then proposes one word for definition, 
not the first, necessarily ; perhaps the most difii- 
cult. If the scholar fails in this, the teacher pro- 
poses it to the class, for the purpose of keeping 
their attention, by saying, " Class." All who are 
able to answer, raise their hands ; and the teacher 
calls upon those least likely to do so, to give the 
definition or answer the question. This course is 
pursued till every member of the class is reached, 
and his merit or demerit ascertained and recorded 
in the class register. 

16. 

Second Step — Parsing. The teacher directs 
the class to turn to page 65 of Calrk's Grammar, 
or to any similar collection of sentences, in any 
other grammar. He writes out the form for pars- 
ing a noun on the board, as given before, in section 
14, page 117. Then some one of the more apt 
scholars is called on to jjarse Science in the sen- 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 119 

tencc, " Science enlarges and strengtliens tlie 
mind," by tlie form — standing while he parses; 
the rest of the class signifying any error by rais- 
ine; their hands ; when the teacher calls on some 
one, so signifying, to correct the error, or the sup- 
posed error. A scholar having parsed a word, is 
excused, and the class parse in concert ; the teach- 
er keeping time for them by pointing in succession 
to the several questions in the form. 

I will parse the words Science and 3Iind, in the 
manner they should be parsed in this exercise. 
Science is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, 
nominative, being the subject of strengthens and 
enlarges, according to the Hule, A noun or pro- 
noun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be 
in the nominative case. Mind is a noun, common, 
third, singular, neuter, objective, being the object 
of the verbs strengthens and enlarges, according 
to the Rule, The object of a transitive verb must 
be in the objective case. 

The teacher will be careful to give only such 
nouns to parse, as are subjects or objects of verbs; 
introducing or requiring nothing in the parsing 
exercise, which has not been fully understood by 
previous explanation and drill. If the book does 
not furnish a sufficient number of appropriate 
examples, sentences may be written on the black- 
board. 

In parsing, the words person, number, gender, 

and case, are omitted; because they are given in 

the form on the blackboard, and because they are 

just as plainly signified, when omitted, as when 

6 



120 GRAMMAR. 

expressed. No definitions are required, we repeat, 
when parsing, unless the pupil, in his parsing, 
makes an error or hesitates ; when he is corrected 
or prompted by the teacher's calling for the appro- 
priate definition ; the forgetting or neglecting of 
which was the cause of the pupil's error or hesi- 
tancy. 

The hour, or half hour, for the recitation, is 
thus occupied in parsing, by individuals, and by 
the class in concert, leaving only time enough to 
assign another lesson. 

17. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson in Writing. 
The next lesson is the parsing of the words in 
writing, which have been jDarsed orally in the class. 
Teacher. Scholars, you will hand me, at the next 
recitation, a written parsing lesson. You may 
write, on paper, with ink, very neatly, and with 
correct spelling, the parsings of the same words 
which have been parsed in this recitation. Now, 
you will be careful to have paper, ink, and pens, 
all ready at the regular hour in which you study 
this lesson, and I will help you a little then, if 
necessary. I would like to have you fold your 
papers neatly, as merchants and lawyers fold their 
papers for filing, and write your name across one 
end, on the outside. The teacher will then show 
the manner of folding by taking a half-sheet and 
folding it before the class. He will write his 
name, on the folded paper, as he wishes the schol- 
ars to write theirs. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 121 

18. 

LESSON V. 

First Step — Criticising Written Exercises. 
The written exorcises are collected by one of tlie 
scholars ; and the teacher reads one of them aloud 
for the class to criticise. They are directed to 
watch for errors and to raise their hands if they 
notice any. Should any hands rise, the teacher 
calls on some one who raises his hands to mention 
the error and correct it. If he should fail, then 
the teacher calls on others, till the error is cor- 
rected. The pupil who made the error is required 
to give the definition or rule which he neglected or 
violated in making the error. The same course is 
pursued till this paper and the others are disposed 
of. The teacher will be careful to bestow any 
praise, that is deserved, for neatness in the execu- 
tion of the mechanical part of the exercise, and he 
will grade the pupils in his register according to 
their accuracy in parsing and spelling; and accord- 
ing to the neatness evinced in writing and fold- 
ing, and superscribing their own names on the 
papers. 

Time should be reserved for another drill in oral 
parsing, even though all the written exercises are 
not criticised before the class. They may be criti- 
cised by the teacher out of school hours, and the 
errors corrected with a lead pencil or red ink, on 
the paper, so that the scholar will understand them, 
and the paper returned to him at the next recita- 
tion. 



122 GRAMMAR. 

19. 

Second Step — Drill in Oral Parsing. This 
drill may consist of parsings of the same class of 
words as before, provided the class are found quite 
deficient in their written exercises ; and the same 
course may be pursued through several lessons 
until the majority of the class are able to parse the 
words assigned, according to their stage of ad- 
vancement, correctly. 

20. 

LESSON VI. 

First Step — Criticising Written Parsings. 

Second Step — Possessive Case. The possess- 
ive case may be introduced, and the declension of 
nouns ; and, after being explained, the definition 
of the possessive case and other cases, also, the 
declensions of nouns may be assigned for study, in 
connection with some nouns to be parsed in writ- 
ing, which have not been parsed orally, and which 
are in the constructions already explained, viz : 
the subject of a verb, the object of a verb, the pos- 
sessive case, denoting possession, origin, design, 
etc. 

21. 
LESSON vir. 

First Step — Recitation of definitions of cases, 
and the declensions of nouns. 

Second Step — The Examination of the paper 
of one of the scholars, while the other scholars, 
having their papers in their hands, give their 
agreement or disagreement with the paper read. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 123 

Third Step — Introduction of the Pronoun. — 
Teacher. If I sliould say : " Jane studies with all 
Jane's might?" how could you better express that 
idea? [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Susan. Susan. "Jane studies with 
all her might," would sound better to me. 

Teacher. Right. What word do you use in- 
stead of Jane's? Class. [Hands rise.] 

Teacher. Mary. Mary. Her. Teacher. Then 
her is a pronoun, because a pronoun is a word used 
instead of a noun. Now, you may all open to page 
209, and see if you can tell me which are the 
pronouns. How many of you see a pronoun 
in the sentence: "The evil which he feared has 
come upon him." [Hands rise.] Teacher. Henry. 
Henry. Which. Teacher. W^hat does which 
stand in place of? Henry. Evils. Teacher. 
Right. Samuel, what pronoun in the same 
sentence 1 Samuel. He. Teacher. W^hy is he 
a pronoun 1 Samuel. Because it stands in the 
place of John. Teacher. Right. Do any of 
you see another pronoun in the same sentence % 
[Hands rise.] Teacher. Ellen. Ellen. Him. 
Teacher. What does him stand in place of? 
Ellen. Ellen. It stands in the place of he. 
Teacher. Right. 

The same course may be pursued till the major- 
ity of the class can distinguish pronouns. The 
next lesson assigned for study, will include the 
definition of the pronoun, and a new parsing les- 
son of nouns; the teacher being careful to assign 



124 GRAMMAR. 

no nouns in different constructions from those lie 
has already explained. 

22. 

LESSON VIII. 

First Step — Recitation of the definition of 
pronouns. 

Second Step — Classes and Cases of Pronouns. 

Teacher. There are three classes of pronouns. 
I will endeavor to describe them, so that you can 
tell them apart. Let me have your attention very 
closely. 

A personal pronoun is one that always stands 
for the same grammatical person. 

A relative pronoun is one that may stand for 
any grammatical person, and connects clauses. 

An interrogative pronoun is one that is used for 
asking a question. 

The pronoun he always stands for the third 
person or some person spoken of. The pronoun I 
always stands for the speaker or for the first per- 
son. Thou, always stands for the second person. 
He, I and thou, are, therefore, personal pronouns. 
The pronoun who may stand for any one of the 
three persons; for the first person, second person, 
or third person. In the expression, "I, who teach," 
what person does who stand for? Class. [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. Susan. Susan. First person. 
Teacher. In the expressions, " You, who study ;" 
'•Our Father which art in heaven," what person do 
who and which stand for? [Hands rise.] John. 
John. The third person. Teacher. What does 
who stand for, John? John. It stands for you. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 



125 



Teacher. Right. What does you stand for, when 
I say, "You, who study?" Does it stand for the 
person spoken of, or the person spoken to? John. 
It stands for the person spoken to. Teacher'. Then 
who stands for the person spoken to, for it stands 
for the same that you does. In the expression, 
"Thou who runnest," what person does who stand 
for? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Jane. Jane. Sec- 
ond person. Teacher. Very well. Then you see 
that who does not always stand for the same gram- 
matical person, as the pronoun I does. 

In the question, " Who comes there?" who 
stands for the answer of the question, and for that 
reason is a pronoun. It is also used for asking 
that question, and is for that reason an interroga- 
tive pronoun. 

How many can tell the pronouns in the line, "I, 
who was present, know the particulars." [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. Julia. Julia. I and who are 
pronouns. Teacher. Yes. Now I will write those 
definitions that I gave you, of the difterent kinds 
of pronouns on the board, and you may copy them 
on to your papers and recite them at your next 
recitation. You may also learn the declensions of 
the personal pronouns, on page 89. I do not wish 
you to learn the definitions of the different classes 
of pronouns in the grammar ; they will only per- 
plex you. 

23. 

LESSON IX. 

First Step — Recitation of the Definitions 
given on the blackboard and copied the day pre- 



126 GRAMMAR. 

vious; also of the Declensions of personal pro- 
nouns. 

Second Step — Form of Parsing Pronouns. — 
This may be written on blackboard thus : Species? 
Class? (^Sub-class?) Agreement? Person? Niim- 
her? Gender? Rule? Case? Construction? Rule? 

Teacher. I will now parse a pronoun for 
you by the form. In the sentence, " When the 
Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced 
their ow^n language," they is a pronoun, per- 
sonal, and agrees with Saxons in the third, plu- 
ral, masculine, according to the rule, A pronoun 
must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or 
pronoun which it represents, in person, number, 
and gender. They is in the nominative case, be- 
ing the subject of the verb introduced, according 
to the rule; A noun or pronoun, which is the sub- 
ject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 

Now, you may parse the same word in concert, 
as I point to the form 

The class then parse this word in concert. 
Their, in the same sentence, is parsed by some one 
of the pupils, following the form, and the teacher 
asking for definitions when the pupil errs or hesi- 
tates. Then the class parse the same word in con- 
cert, following the form as the teacher points to 
the several questions in it. 

This exercise is continued with other pronouns, 
on the same page, till the time expires; when the 
teacher assigns the same pronouns for a parsing 
esson in writing, for the next recitation. 



PRIMARY TEACniNa. 127 

24. 

LESSON X. 

First Step — Criticism of one of the written 
exercises, witli the comparison of the other exer- 
cise by the scholars. The teacher then collects 
the papers, for criticism out of school hours. 

Second Step — Relative Pronouns. Teacher. 
I wish you to attend now more particularly to the 
relative pronouns. How many can give me the 
definition of a relative pronoun? [Hands rise.] 
Teaclier. Sarah. Sarah repeats the definition. 
If she fails or errs, some other pupil is called on 
for it. Then the class is called on to repeat it, in 
concert, several times, till all can give it correctly. 
Teacher. A relative pronoun is one used to intro- 
duce a sentence, which qualifies its own antecedent. 
Turn to page 91, and see who can tell me what 
sentences, who connects? [No hands rise.] Ttacher. 
I will tell you ; " The youth was applauded," is 
one sentence, and "Who was speaking," is another, 
since they both have verbs in them, as every sen- 
tence must have a verb in it. Now, try the next 
sentence. — What is said about hel Samuel. Sa- 
muel. " Man whom you described." Teacher. No. 
" We saw man," is one sentence ; what is the other'? 
— Samuel. "Whom you described." Teacher. And 
what connects the two sentences'? Samuel. Whom, 
I guess. Teacher. You guess right. Then what 
kind of a pronoun is whom ? Class. [Hands rise.] 
Teacher. James. James. Relative. Teacher. Why 1 
James. It connects those sentences. Teacher. Very 
well. Who can tell me the relative pronoun in 



128 GRAMMAR. 

the next sentence? [No hands rise.] Teacher, 
*' Mount the horse," is one sentence ; what other 
sentence is there included in if? [Hands rise.] 
Teacher. Susan. Susan. " Which I have chosen." 
Teacher. Right, and what stands for horse and 
connects the clauses 1 [Hands rise.] Teacher. 
Mary. Mary. Which. Teacher. Very well. Now, 
Mary, you may parse which by the form. 

Mary parses which ; any corrections, signified by 
the class, or otherwise necessary, are made by the 
teadier, by calling on Mary for the appropriate 
definitions. The class then parse it in concert, till 
they all are able to harmonize. 

The parsing lesson now assigned for writing, is 
these same relative pronouns, which have been 
parsed by the class orally. 

25. 

LESSON XI. 

Second Step — The Verb — Tenses. Teacher. 
We will resume the study of the verb. How many 
can give me the definition of the verb. [Hands rise.] 
Teacher. Sarah. Sarah. A verb is a word used to 
express the act, being, or state of a person or thing. 

Teacher. Kight. The class may give the defi- 
nition in concert. 

The class repeat the definition until all can give 
it correctly. 

The course to be pursued with the verb is simi- 
lar to that pursued with the noun, viz : taking the 
most obvious feature first, and others in order, as 
they become more complex. The distinction of 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 129 

tense appears to me tlie simplest and easiest modi- 
fication, in connection with the verb. 

Teacher. There are three kinds of time: pres- 
ent, past and future. All actions are performed 
in present time, or past time, TDr future time. Each 
kind of time has two tenses; the first and second. 
The first tense of each kind is called the present, 
past, future. The second of each kind is called 
the prior present, prior past, and prior future. 
I will give you the form of these tenses with the 
verb learn: Present, I learn; Past, I learned; Fu- 
ture, I shall or will learn. The class may give the 
forms in concert as I call for them. Teacher. Pres- 
ent, Class. I learn. Teacher, Past, Class. I 
learned. Teacher. Future, Class. I shall or will 
learn. Teacher. I would like to have you give 
the same tenses of some other verbs. Take study, 
and go through with it in the same way. 

The class may all follow the teacher in inflecting 
the present tense, with the persons and numbers, 
giving them the proper pronouns. 

Teacher. You will be able to get the forms of 
the tenses more easily by means of these signs : 
710W, being the sign or test of the present ; yester- 
day/, the sign or test of the past; and, shall or ic ill, 
the signs of the future. 

You will not find the signs, Jioio and yesterday, 
often in connection with verbs, in books; but you 
can always apply them to their respective tenses 
and make sense. They are applied in this way: 
Present, I learn now ; Past, I learned yesterday ; 
Future, I shall or will learn. 






r 



130 GRAMMAR. 

Now, you may give, in concert, the verb write 
in these three tenses, with the signs. I will beat 
time and you may give them. Class. Present. I 
write now ; Past, I wrote yesterday; Future., I shall 
or will write. Teacher. Pretty well. You may 
give them again. 

The drill is continued with tenses in a variety 
of verbs, until all are able to give the tenses cor- 
rectly. If any scholar is slow and careless in the 
concert exercise, he is called on to give the tenses 
separately, till his attention is secured. 

26. 

Second Step — Prior Tenses. Teacher. The 
prior tenses have these signs. The prior present, 
havCj hadst, or lias; prior past, had or hadst ; prior 
future, shall or will have; I will apply them to 
the verb learn. Prior present., I have learned ; 
Prior past., I had learned ; Prior future., I shall 
or will learn. Now, you may give them as I call 
for them. 

Teacher. Prior present. Class. I have learned. 
Teacher. Prior past. Class. I had learned. 
Teacher. Prior future. Class. I shall or will 
have learned. 

Teacher. Prior future. Class. I shall or will 
have learned. 

Teacher. Very well. Now take the verb write 
and give the names of the prior tenses and their 
forms as I beat time with the pointer. 

It may be well in any more difficult concert ex- 
ercise, in which many of the class hang behind or 
fail of e-etting the exercise, to require the class to 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 131 

give each form twice. The laggards will then be 
able to catch the forms. 

Teacher. You may now give all the six tenses, 
with their signs, as I call for them, and you may 
all give each form twice. All together. Present. 
Class. I learn now, I learn now. Teacher. Prior 
present. Class. I have learned, I have learned. 
Teacher. Past. Class. I learned yesterday, I 
learned yesterday. Teacher. Prior past. Class. 
I had learned, I had learned. Teacher. Future. 
Class. I shall or will learn, I shall or will learn. 
Teacher. Prior future. Class. I shall or will have 
learned, I shall or will have learned. 

Teacher. You may now copy these signs from 
the board as I write them, and they will be your 
lesson for the next recitation. [The form of writing 
them will be found in Sec. 58.] The teacher writes 
on the board : "Signs of the tenses." Indicative 
mood. Present, (now.) Prior present, have, hast, 
or has. Past, (yesterday.) Prior past, had or 
hadst. Future, shall or will. Prior future, shall or 
will have. 

You may learn the names of the tenses, and their 
signs, for your next lesson, so that you can all write 
them on the black board, at the next recitation, with- 
out looking on your papers. You may also learn 
the definitions of these tenses as given on pages 115- 
116 of Clark's Grammar. 

27. 

LESSON XII. 

First Step — Recitation of definitions of tenses; 
and writing out the tenses, and their signs on the 
board or on slates. 



132 GRAMMAR. 

Second Step — Moods. Teacher. There are 
seA^eral different manners of expressing actions or 
states of being. These different manners gram- 
marians call moods. The indicative mood, that 
which you have been learning thus far, simply in- 
dicates a fact or asks a question, as, He learned. 
Did you study? The potential mood expresses 
power, possibility, liberty or necessity, and always 
uses these auxiliary or helping verbs, may, can, or 
must; and might, could, would or should. I will 
give you the four tenses in this mood ; then you 
may see if you can give them in concert: Present. 
I may, can, or must learn ; Prior present^ I may, 
can, or must have learned ; Past^ 1 might, could, 
would, or should learn ; Prior past^ I might, 
could, would, or should have learned. Now, you 
may see if you can give the present tense, with its 
different persons and numbers. Give each twice, 
all together. First person. Class. I may, can or 
must learn, I may, can, or must learn. Teacher. 
Second person. Class. Thou mayest, canst, or 
must learn. Thou, etc. Teacher. Third person, etc. 
This drill may be continued in this form, till the 
class are all familiar with the variations of these 
signs, as applied to the different persons and num- 
bers. Then the other tenses of the potential may 
be taken up in the same manner. 

Teacher. I have told you the signs of the four 
tenses in the potential mood. I will repeat these 
signs, once more ; and you will notice that they are 
taken in pairs ; that the perfect tenses differ from 
the others by taking, after them, the word have. 



PRIMARY TEACHINa. 133 

The teacher repeats these tenses ; then calls on 
the class, thus : 

Teacher. You may give me these tenses of the 
potential mood, in concert, each twice. Present. 
Class. I may, can or must learn, etc. Teacher. 
Prior Present. Class. I may, can or must have 
learned, etc. Teacher. Past. Class. I might, 
could, would, or should learn, etc. Teacher. Prior 
Past. Class. I might, could, would, or should 

have learned, etc. The concert exercise must be 
continued till all the class can join in promptly 
and correctly. In case any pupil fails, he should 
be taken, separately, and drilled, till he overcomes 
the difficulty. 

28. 

Third Step — Parsing Verbs. Teacher. You 
may now turn to page 91. I will take a verb and 
parse it for you, as far as you will be able to under- 
stand me. In the third sentence, have been, is a verb, 
in the indicative mood, prior present tense, first 
person, singular number, to agree with its subject, 
I, according to rule, on pnge 195. A verb must 
agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and 
number. 

I will now write the partial form, on the board, 
for parsing the verb, by which I parsed this verb, 
thus : Species? Mood? Tense? Person? Num- 
her? Construction? Rule? 

You may now parse the same verb, by this form, 
and give each particular called for, by the form, 
twice, as I point. 

The class now follow the form, as directed, and 



I 



134 GRAMMAR. 

parse the verb, have been ; then other verbs : the 
teacher calling on individuals to select the succes- 
sive verbs as they occur, and to parse them. Then, 
after a verb has been parsed correctly^ by an indi- 
vidual ; or, after he has been corrected by the class 
and teacher, in the manner before described, the 
class, in each instance, are called on to parse the 
same verb, in concert; giving the entire parsing, 
twice only, repeating each particular once, in each 
parsing. 

29. 
Fourth Step. The teacher prescribes for the 
next lesson, the definitions of the words; verb, 
mood, indicative mood, potential mood, tense, pres- 
ent tense, prior present tense, past tense, prior past 
tense, future tense, prior future tense ; also, for a 
parsing lesson, in writing, the same verbs as have 
already been parsed, orally, in this exercise. 

30. 

LESSON XIII. 

First Step — Recitation of lesson prescribed, 
and examination of the written exercises, and the 
hearty approval of every point in every scholar 
that admits of it; especially, the neatness in fold- 
ing papers, and superscribing their names: neat- 
ness in the arrangement of the writing on the page; 
freedom from blots and blurs, etc. 

31. 

Second Step — Imperative Mood. Teacher. — 
There are three other moods beside the indicative 
and potential. You will know them by these pe 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 135 

culiarities, which I shall give you. The imperative 
mood is used for commanding, entreating, exhort- 
ing and permitting. It has no subject expressed. 
Take, for example: "George, shut the door." 
Shut, is a verb in the imperative mood, because it 
is used for commanding, etc. The teacher should 
give examples of all the different particulars em- 
braced in the definition of the imperative mood, 
and then proceed to parse a verb in this mood by 
the form already given. The class should also 
parse, individually, and in concert, other exam- 
ples, in preparation for writing. 

32. 

Third Step — Infinitive Mood. A similar 
course may be pursued with the infinitive mood, 
and embracing the signs of two tenses ; to, being 
the sign of the present tense ; to have, the sign of 
the prior present tense. 

Fourth Step. A lesson should be prescribed, 
embracing the definitions pertaining to the verb, 
as far as the class have advanced ; also, a parsing 
lesson, to be prepared, in writing, embracing verbs 
in ih.e imperative and infinitive moods. 

33. 

LESSON XIV. 

First Step — Recitation, and Examination of 
written exercises. 

Second Step — Voice. Teacher, I wish now 
to explain the most difficult thing to understand, 
that you will find in the whole subject of Gram- 
mar. It is Voice. 



L 



136 GRAMMAR. 

Voice shows the relation of action expressed by 
the verb, to its subject. If the verb shows tiiat the 
subject acts, it is in the active voice. If the verb 
shows that the subject is acted upon, it is said to 
be in the passive voice ; because, j)assive means re- 
ceiving or suiFering an action or influence. For 
example : "George runs." In this sentence, the 
verb shows that the subject, George, acts; also, in 
the sentences, "The boy drives the horse;" "The 
stove warms the room ;" the verbs show that the 
subjects act. But, in this sentence, "The horse is 
driven by the boy," the subject is acted upon, or 
receives the action, or is passive to it. The verb 
is said to be in the passive voice, because the sub- 
ject is acted upon, or is passive to the action. 

Now, you may look at some verbs in the Gram- 
mar, and tell me, if you can, whether they are in 
the active or passive voice. 

Turn to page 118, and take the verbs as they oc- 
cur in Sentence 37, and tell me whether they are 
active or passive, and why? 

John, you may select the last verb, and tell me 
which voice it is in. John. Have been happier. 
Teacher. Susan. Susan. I don't think happier 
is a verb. Have been, is a verb. Teacher. 
Right, Susan. John, can you tell me what voice 
have been is in? John. I don't know. [Hands 
rise.l Teacher. Hov/ many think have been is 
in the active voice? [Several hands rise.] Teacher. 
How many think have been is in the passive voice? 
[Several other pupils raise their hands.] Teacher. 
How many don't know anything about it? [All 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 137 

raise their hands, with a smile.] Teacher. 1 see 
you don't understand it. I told you that voice was 
a difficult matter to get hold of. The truth is, that 
verb has no voice, according to my definition, as it 
does not denote action. "What was my definition 
of the active voice? [Hands rise.] Teacher. Mary. 
Mary. The active voice shows that the subject 
acts. Teacher. Very well. How many can give 
me the definition of the passive voice? [Hands 
rise.] Teacher. Sarah. i^arah. The passive 
voice shows that the subject of the verb is acted 
upon. Teacher. Very well. Have been, or the 
verb to be, and other verbs which do not denote 
action, are said to be in the active or passive voice, 
according to their form. If such verbs have the 
form of verbs, whose subjects act, we will say they 
are in the active voice ; or, if they have the form 
of verbs whose subjects are acted upon, we will say, 
they are in the passive voice. 

Now, William, take another verb, and give its 
voice. William. Hast been taught, is a verb in 
the passive voice. Teacher. Why? William. 
Because the subject is acted upon. Teacher. Bight. 
Samuel, another verb. Samuel. Had not found, 
is neither active nor passive, as I see. It don't de- 
note action, but that there wasn't any action. He 
did n't find them. Teacher. Not, is no part of 
the verb. You may omit not. Now, tell me what 
voice had found is in, Samuel. Samuel. The ac- 
tive voice. Teacher. Why? Samuel. Because 
it shows, that the subject acted, if you leave out 
not. Teacher. Very well, Samuel. 



138 GRAMMAR. 

So the class are all called on, individually, to 
give the voice of one or more verbs. 

Third Step — Parsing by the form. 

Fourth Step — Prescribing a Lesson. 

This should include a review of definitions, for 
the verb and its modifications, also definitions 
written out on the blackboard, for voice, active 
voice, and passive voice. These definitions should 
be copied by the scholars on to their slates, or on 
to paper, so that they may have no excuse for not 
learning them. These definitions are not all found 
in any Grammar. 

34. 

LESSON XV. 

First Step — Recitation. 

Second Step — Classes. 

It will hardly be necessary to go through with 
the method of drill for the classification of verbs. 
The classification which we adopt does not agree 
with Brown's ; consequently, if that Grrammar is 
used, definitions must be written out on the board. 
Such definitions may be found in this volume. 
Part III, Section 60. 

35. 

Third Step — Parsing. 

The complete form for parsing verbs may now 
be given ; and the class will need drilling on this 
form, in connection with the form for pronouns 
and nouns, for many days — perhaps weeks — in 
connection with written lessons. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 139 

36. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

The remaining Parts of Speech. 

The Adjective, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, 
Conjunction, and Exclamation, may be made sub- 
jects of lessons, occasionally, to give variety to the 
drills in parsing verbs, pronouns, and nouns. 

The adjective would have been introduced more 
properly, immediately after the nouns, in this 
course of lessons; but, from its greater simplicity, 
it was thought preferable to give all the space to 
the more complex forms and facts involved in the 
noun, pronoun and verb. 

37. 

THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

The most important of these rules will be learn- 
ed in connection with the drills already given, 
without assigning special lessons for learning 
them. Such lessons should, however, be given, 
sooner or later, and the scholars should be required 
to give them hy number, as they are called for, pro- 
miscuously, by the teacher. The advantage of this 
is, that they can afterwards refer to them by num- 
ber; thus saving much time and labor in the pars- 
ing lessons, both oral and written. The more dif- 
ficult rules for construction, as, for example, that 
for the predicate nominative, should have special 
drills, and entire lessons devoted to them ; other- 
wise, they never will be well understood. 



140 GRAMMAR. 

38. 
It is an excellent pLan to give parsing lessons 
in tlie examples of false syntax, furnished for cor- 
rection in the grammar used, confining the attention 
of the class chiefly to the words which violate the 
rules ; requiring, that a pupil, before parsing the 
word assigned him, correct it, and give the reason 
for his correction ; then that he parse it in full. 

39. 

HORIZONTAL PARSING. 

Much more progress may be made, in a given 
time, after a class shall have become tolerably 
familiar with all the parts of speech, by pursuing 
the horizontal method of parsing. 

The First Step, in this method, is to call on 
the class for the parts of speech, only, as they 
occur in any given passage. The Second Step is 
to give the class only to which each word belongs; 
for example, (see Clark's Grammar, pages 104, 119, 
and 154). Let the scholars, in succession, as they 
sit, give the classes of the words, as they occur, 
thus: A, indefinite; man, common ; of, not classi- 
fied; a, indefinite; lively, common or qualifying; 
imagination, common; has, irregular, transitive, etc. 

TnmD Step — The cases only, of nouns and 
pronouns. 

Fourth Step — The constructions only, of the 
nouns and pronouns. 

Fifth Step — The rules only, which apply to 
the cases of nouns, pronouns and verbs. 

Sixth Step — The construction and rules of 
all the words, as they occur, in succcession. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 141 

Mucli time may be saved, by adopting any one 
of these steps, wbicb the class may seem most to 
need. Thus, those points on which the class are 
well posted, may be laid aside, for the time, and 
their attention directed, exclusively, to those in 
which they are found most defective. 

40. 

GENERAL CAUTIONS. 

This entire plan demands the exercise of the 
closest watchfulness, on the part of the teacher, 
that no material points are omitted ; that nothing, 
which has once been passed over, should be so long 
neglected, in the drills, as to be forgotten. 

The FORMS OF PARSING, for all the parts of speech, 
should be well memorized, and so frequent prac- 
tice should be given, in the use of them all^ that 
no one can be forgotten. 

Care should be taken, that only one construc- 
tion be given to each word, except to double rela- 
tives, which, from supplying two cases, are in two 
constructions. Nouns and pronouns, in apposition, 
are too frequently parsed as if also in the same 
construction as the word with which they are in 
apposition. The fact of their being in apposition, 
is sufficient to determine their case, and any other 
construction would be superfluous. The Predicate 
NomNATivE, is not unfrequently parsed by teach- 
ers who enjoy some reputation, as being in the 
objective case, and governed by an intransitive or 
passive verb. The scholar should be drilled long, 
and thoroughly, on this point, till he accustoms 



( - 



142 GRAMMAR. 

himself to ascertain that an intransitive or passive 
verb is used; and, that the noun after it, means 
the same thing as the noun before it. 

In the distinction of personal and relative pro- 
nouns, there is generally more obscurity and error 
than in any other part of Grammar. It arises, in 
part, from their inappropriate names; but chiefly, 
from the erroneous or obscure definitions used for 
them. 

A personal pronoun is too frequently defined as 
one which relates to persons, and a relative pro- 
noun as one which relates to an antecedent. Both 
of these definitions are abominable in themselves, 
and lam-entable in their results. 

In all the parsing exercises, constant care should 
be exercised in selecting such sentences and 
WORDS, for drill, as will best exemplify the princi- 
ples presented. From a want of such care, arise 
confusion, embarrassment, disgust and discourage- 
ment. 

Again ; scholars should neither be required, nor 
permitted, to parse a word any farther than the 
class have been taken along together, and a form 
has been given. 



METHOD OF TEACHING ADVANCED 
CLASSES. 

41. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 

When, by the method described in the foregoing 
pages, or by any other, a class can distinguish all 
the parts of speech, and parse them in the more 
obvious constructions, a review of the entire sub- 
ject should be commenced, with the use of outlines. 

Some teachers decry outlines altogether, and 
confine themselves and their scholars to the order 
and substance of the text-book, or what is worse, 
to DO order or substance, except to such as appears 
in gas and vanishes in forgetfulness. 

My experience is, that classes making use of 
outlines as guides to investigation, are much more 
independent, thorough and critical, in their study; 
and, that they obtain more correct, liberal and 
comprehensive views from such investigation, than 
without outlines. Outlines, used properly, will 
never limit investigation ; but every well-trained 
pupil understands, that any facts, or principles, or 
items not provided for in the outlines, must be 
incorporated into it by himself; and he thus en- 
joys the satisfaction of an original discoverer. 

Not only so, but it is an excellent plan to re- 
quire a class^ having used outlines enough to ap- 
preciate the logic of their arrangement, to make 
7 (143) 



144 GRAMMAR. 

out outlines, eacli pupil for himself, and to present 
tliem, on paper, to the teacher, for examination. 
Then the teacher may select some one or more of 
these, for presentation to the class. The pupil 
will copy his own work on to the board. 

42. 

METHODS OF USING OUTLINES. 

First Mctliod. Instead of assigning a given 
number of pages, in the text-book, for scholars to 
study, for recitation, an outline of a subject may 
be copied on to the blackboard, by one of the pu- 
pils, from a manuscript prepared by the teacher. 
The class will all copy the outline on to slates or 
loose paper. It is then expected, that at the next 
recitation every pupil will be prepared to give the 
whole of the outline on the board, entirely from 
memory ; also, any definitions, explanations, and 
applications, that the outline or the subject may 
call for. The teacher does not, ordinarily, call on 
one individual to write out the whole outline, but 
distributes it in such portions, as may be conveni- 
ent, to difi'erent pupils. These portions, so as- 
signed, they may write, immediately, on the board; 
and describe them, when they are again called on, 
by the teacher. After having assigned the differ- 
ent topics of the outline, to the class, (and each of 
the topics, if the class is large, may be given to 
several different scholars,) the teacher may occupy 
any time, before scholars who have had topics as- 
signed them are ready to report, in examining oth- 
ers, who have had no topics assigned them, orally, 
by questions ; or, by proposing topics for them to 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 145 

discuss, Tvitliout having written any portion of the 
outline on the board. Such a course would be ne- 
cessary, with a large class and a small blackboard. 
Teachers using outlines, should not lay aside 
the ordinary methods of assigning lessons, and of 
recitations, entirely. They may adopt this method 
of reporting, occasionally, in advance lessons; al- 
ways in review lessons; or, as the nature of the 
subject, and the aptitude and discipline of the 
pupils may require. 

43. 

Second Methocl. An outline may be assigned to 
only one pupil, for him to use in investigating and 
mastering a subject. He will be expected to give 
his report, on that subject, at the next recitation, 
either without the written outline before him, in 
any form, or with the outline written on the black- 
board, from memoiy, in presence of the class. In 
the latter case the pupil, in giving his report, 
takes his place, at the board, with the pointer, and 
directs the attention of the class to the several 
topics, sub topics, and distinct items, as he ampli- 
fies them with definitions, explanations, exemplifi- 
cations, illustrations and applications. These may 
be drawn from books, or from the pupil's own ex- 
perience and observation. 

It is perceived, that the scholar thus obtains the 
power, almost unconsciously, of speaking system- 
atically, and, at length, on any subject that he may 
have properly and thoroughly investigated. To 
such iDupils as are the best disciplined, advance 
suhjecis may be assigned, without outlines. It is 



146 GRAMMAR. 

then expected tliat tliey will prepare tlieir own 
outlines, and present tlieni, as their own, on the 
blackboard, at the time of giving their report. 

A definite time should be appointed, for giving 
the report; also, a definite amount of time, in 
which to give it; as five minutes, ten minutes, or 
fifteen minutes, according to the age of the pupil, 
the time occupied by the whole recitation, and the 
demands of the subject assigned for investigation. 

Tlie most interesting public examinations that 
I have ever attended, have been conducted on this 
plan. Special subjects were assigned to individual 
pupils, on which to report or deliver lectures before 
the public audience. The audience, of course, are 
informed of the plan adopted, in the preparation 
for the examination ; and, that it is not designed so 
much to exhibit the scholars' knowledge of the 
branches generally, as to test their mental power 
in grasping a subject, and in communicating their 
views under embarrassing circumstances. 

The audience should be urged to criticise the 
pupil, during the delivery of his lecture. Other 
pupils also, especially members of the same class, 
should consider themselves free to criticise, to 
correct misstatements, or to fill up omissions. 

44. 

METHOD OF CRITICISING REPORTS. 

The scholars should do most of the criticising. 
They will learn much more by criticising than by 
being criticised. 

But system should be secured in these criti- 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 147 

eisms; or nothing definite, or satisfactory, will be 
accomplished. 

The order to be followed may be this : at the 
conclusion of a report, before the pupil reporting 
has taken his seat, the teacher may call on the 
class for criticisms, on — 1st, Pronunciation ; 2d, 
Spelling; 3d, Arrangement of the Outline, includ- 
ing, also, omissions or repetitions; 4th, Defini- 
tions ; 5th, Promiscuous matters. 

Lastly, the teacher makes any additional criti- 
cisms, remarks, or explanations required. The 
pupil having a special subject assigned him, is, 
of course, excused from preparing the lesson as- 
si2:ned to the class. 

By giving the subjects, in order, to different 
pupils, on successive days, reviews will be accom- 
plished in a manner more interesting and impres- 
sive than in that generally pursued. The subjects 
having been passed over once in review, as far 
as the class have advanced, the same order may be 
pursued by other pupils, as by those who first had 
them for special study and reporting. 

45. 

Ordinary Method of conducting a recitation 
with an advanced Grraramar Class. 

The teacher has a res-ister for this class as for 
all others. He calls the names of the pupils, as he 
finds them in his register ; sometimes in the direct 
order, sometimes in the inverse order; sometimes 
in the direct order, omitting alternate names ; then 
in the inverse order. By this method of calling 
on the members of a class, he secures uncertainty, 



148 GRAMMAR. 

on the part of a pupil, as to when he may be called 
on ; and, certainty, on his own part, that no pupil 
is neglected in the recitation. He grades each 
pupil as he recites ; which grading shows who has 
been called on. 

A scholar's name being called, he rises, and the 
subject of a section is proposed for him to discuss. 
If he should fail to reach all the matter of the 
section, the teacher will reach his knowledge or 
ignorance of those points, by questions. 

In the case of parsing, or correction of false 
syntax, the pupil, when called on, rises and parses 
the word, or corrects the sentence, without inter- 
ruption from the class ; but when he concludes, 
the teacher calls on the class for criticism, by pro- 
nouncing the word "Class." Other pupils, who 
have criticisms to offer, raise their hands, and are 
called on, by name, separately, to give them. The 
teacher will call on those first, who are generally 
the least inclined to offer criticisms. He will also 
call on any pupil, for criticisms or corrections, who 
is seen to have remitted his attention or interest in 
the recitation. Such criticisms are given, by the 
pupil, sitting. No pupil, when standing, resumes 
his seat, without permission from the teacher. It 
is well, in ease a pupil fails in a topic or question 
proposed to him, to pass it to the next pupil, and 
if he fails, to call on the class. That being dis- 
posed of, a second topic or question is proposed to 
the scholar first having failed; and so on, till the 
teacher is satisfied, as to his grade, for the recita- 
tion. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 149 

46. 

OUTLINES. 

Remark. The following outlines are accompa- 
nied only by the definitions of such words as, I 
conceive, are inadequately, or incorrectly defined, 
in most Grammars. It is not supposed, that this 
number of The Normal is to be used as a text-book. 
But, it is hoped that both teachers and scholars 
will find it serviceable as a reference book, in 
their daily preparation for recitations. 

47. 

GENERAL OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

Remark. This outline was introduced, in Part 
II, page 49, and the definitions and explanations 
given, in connection with it, for the purpose of 
keeping the chain of Outlines unbroken from the 
General Outlines of Knowledge, in Part I, to those 
of Orthoepy and Orthography, in Part II. 

OUTLINE OF ORTHOGENY. 

C Noun, extended on pa^e 150. 
Verb, •• « 157. 

Pronoun, " " 162. 

Oethogent, \ ^djeetive, 
' ) rartieipie, 
Adverb, 
Conjunction 
Interjection or Exclamation. 

48. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Orthogeny. For definition, see Part II, page 
45, section 9. For definitions of the parts of 
speech, see any text-book in general use. 



49. 

OUTLINE OF THE NOUN. 






^ 
&. 






O 



m 



PH 



a 

EH 



a > 



a 
I 



W S3 



C C n3 



> c3 



rt > 



b -3 £ fl 
7^ i- ^ a 



CO 



a 

o 
O 




(150) 



2: 
o 



OUTLINE OF THE NOUN— Continued. 




152 GRAMMAR. 

50. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Noun — A name. 

Remark. Terms include all tliose technical 
words necessary to an understanding of the sub- 
ject, and not elsewhere introduced into the outline. 
They should all be defined, by the pupil, in giv- 
ing a report. 

Classes. Results of an arrangement of similar 
things, according to some definite plan 

Remark. The sub-classes of common nouns are 
only noticed in parsing, when the noun falls into 
one of the sub-classes in the first vertical column. 

Modification. Any form or condition of words, 
used for grammatical distinction. 

51. 

CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Construction. The method of framing a word 
into a sentence or phrase, by which it acquires any 
given modification. 

Remark. Examples of nouns, in some of the 
more difl&cult constructions of the several cases, 
will be given, in which I differ somewhat from 
both Clark and Brown. 

52. 

Nominative in the Predicate. 

Explanation. Every sentence is divided into 
two parts; the Subject and Predicate. The sub- 
ject is that of v/hich something is asserted: the 
predicate is that w^liich is asserted of the subject, 
and always includes the verb of the sentence. The 
noun which follows an intransitive or passive verb 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 153 

and denotes the same thing as its subject, is said 
to be a predicate noun, and is always in the same 
case as the subject. The subject of a finite verb 
(/, e., a verb not in the infinitive mood,) is in the 
nominative case; consequently a noun in the pred- 
icate, with a finite verb, must be in the nominative 
case. 

Example First. " Gold is a me^a/." 
Metal is a noun, common, third, singular, neu- 
ter, nominative, being in the predicate with the 
intransitive verb, is, and denoting the same thing 
as the subject, gold. 

Remark. Words, in this construction, are too 
fiequently parsed in the objective case, and are 
said to be governed by the intransitive verb, which 
can have no government. 

Eocample Second. " He was named John." 
JoJm is a noun, proper, third, singular, mascu- 
line, nominative, being in the predicate with the 
passive verb, was named, and denoting the same 
thing as he, the subject of the verb : 

53. 

APPOSITION WITH A SENTENCE. 

Example. "He asked me to visit him in the 
country; a privilege of which I gladly availed my- 
self." 

Privilege is a noun, common, third, singular, 
neuter, nominative, in apposition with the sen- 
tence, " He asked me to visit him in the country." 



154 



GRAMMAR. 



54. 
NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

These constructions are exemplified and ex- 
plained, in Clark's English Grammar, pages 85 and 
231. 

55. 

SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

Remark. Strangely enough, this construction 
is overlooked by Clark, and many other excellent 
grammarians. 

Explanation. In the abridgement of a subordi- 
nate sentence, used as the object of a transitive 
verb, the finite verb of the sentence is changed 
into the infinitive, and its subject into the objec- 
tive case, provided it difi"ers from tlie subject of 
the principal sentence. 

Example. "Susan desires, that Samuel may go 
away." This sentence, abridged, takes this form : 
Susan desires Samuel to go away. 

Brown, and many other grammarians, would 
parse Samuel as the object of desire. This is 
plainly not the sense. Susan does not desire Sam- 
uel, but desires tlie action, implied in the subordi- 
nate sentence. Then the subordinate sentence is 
the object of the verb, desire, and not Samuel. 
The usage of all languages puts the subject of the 
infinitive, in this construction, in the objective 
form. "We see this, more plainly, in English, by 
the use of the pronoun, in a similar sentence. Un- 
abridged, "John understood that he said," etc.; 
abridged, "John understood him to say " etc. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 155 

Rule, for subject of the infinitive. 

The subject of the ivfiniiive is commonly in the ob- 
jective case. — Someiimea in the nominative. See 
Clark's Grammar, page 189. 

OBJECTIVE IN THE PREDICATE. 

Explanation. Bj Clark, intransitive and passive 
verbs take the same case after them as before them, 
when both words refer to the same thinfy. 

In the last construction, the subject of the in- 
finitive is put in the objective. If, then, this in- 
finitive is an intransitive or passive verb, and has 
a noun in the predicate, denoting the same thing 
as its subject, it will be in the same case, viz: the 
objective. 

Example First. "I thought him to be a scholar.'" 
iScholar is in the objective, in the predicate; or, as 
we say more briefly, is a predicate objective. 

Example Second. "Zachariah wished him to 
be called JoJin.^' 

John is parsed thus : John is a noun, proper, 
third, singular, masculine, objective in the predi- 
cate, with the passive verb, to be called : according 
to Rule 21, Brown ; him, being the objective sub- 
ject before it. 

OBJECTIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Noufts expressing distance, time, weight, and 
measure, are often put in the objective case, with- 
out a governing word. 

Explanation. In such examples as the follow 
ing, "He walked a mile," "She studied an hour,' 



156 GRAMMAR. 

" It weighed a pound," etc., there is no preposi- 
tion, which, being supplied, will make good sense, 
or euphony. Usage does not warrant us in sup- 
plying any preposition, to govern these objectives ; 
hence, we say, they are in the objective independ- 
ent. 

57. 

DRILL ON THE PRECEDING CONSTRUCTIONS. 

The teacher will do well to assign for a lesson 
to an advanced class, perhaps for several lessons, 
the several constructions of nouns; requiring each 
scholar to bring in sentences, written on paper, 
exemplifying each construction, with the exempli- 
fying word underscored. These sentences should 
not be copied from any Grammar. 

The time of the recitation may be taken up by 
each scholar's parsing a word, in one of his own 
sentences, he having first written the sentence on 
the blackboard. The order of proceeding should 
be this : the teacher calls on one pupil to write a 
sentence exemplifying the predicate nominative, 
and so on till each scholar has been called on, and 
till each construction has been thus exemplified, 
one or more times, on the blackboard. 

Then each scholar may be called on, the second 
time, to parse the word, in his own sentence, in 
the required construction. 

If one pupil should fail, in giving a correct ex- 
ample, for any required construction, another 
should be called on to give it. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 



157 



58. 

OUTLINE OF THE VERB. 

'Terms: Subject, Object, Preterit, Finite, 

As to Form \ Regular, Irregular, 

' / Defective, Redundant, 



Classes, 



. . TT { iransitive, 

As to use, { T 4. •*• 

' ( Intransitive. 



r- ( 1 



Verb, - 



Form,- 

I Voice, 
Mood, 

Tense, 

Person, 
t Number, 

r 

Principal J ^'^'^^^^ 
Parts, ] 

I 

I Tests, 



Ordinary, 
Emphatic, 
Progressive. 

Active, 
Passive. 

Ind., Sub., Poten., 
Imp., Inf., Part. 

Present, Prior Present, 
Past, Prior Past. 
Future, Prior Future. 

1st, 2nd, 3rd. 

Singular, 
Plural. 

[ Present Indicative, 
Past Indicative, 
Present Participle, 
Past Participle. 

\ (now,) (yesterday,) 
i (-ing,) (having.) 



' <B f Pres., (now,) Past, (yesterday.) 

.^ I Future, shall or will. 

"S .j Prior Pre.'^ent, have, hast, or had. 

;g I Prior Past, had, or hadst. 

^ (^ Prior Future, shall have or will have. 

_• f Present, may, can, or must. 

.2 i Past, might, could, would, or should, 
q. J ^ \ Prior Present, mav, can, or must have, 
feigns, S ^ I p^.^Qj. p^gj^ might, could would, or 

P-i [ should have. 



c, , . .. (If, though, 
Subjunctive, , '. „ " ' 



I unless, except, etc. 
Imperative, — Its uses are its Signs 

Infinitive 



Present, To ; 

Prior Present, To have. 



158 GRAMMAR. 

OUTLINE OF THE VERB — CONCLUDED. 

I Species, Classes, (Principal Parts,) 
Form of Parsing, •< (Form,) Voice, Mood, Tense, 

( Person, Number, Construction, Rule. 

Form of Parsing j Species, Classes, j y^^Q^ C 
Participles, j Derivation, Construction, Rule. 

59. 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Remark. The greater part of the definitions 
required in giving a report on the outline of the 
verb, can be obtained from all grammars. I shall 
only give such definitions as, I conceive, are gen- 
erally given erroneously. 

Verb. A word used to assert action, being, or 
state of being. 

Explanation. The word assert is used here, 
with the meanings of affirm, deny, ask a question, 
command, exhort, intreat, permit, suppose, grant, 
or state a condition. 

Regular Yerb. One that makes its preterit or 
past tense, and past participle, by adding ed to 
the present, according to Definition 120, Clark's 
Grammar. 

Transitive Verb. One that requires an object 
to complete its meaning. 

Remark 1. A common definition of a tran- 
sitive verb is: "One that has an object after it.'' 
This last expression, "after it," is constantly mis- 
leading the pupil; for, in the case of relative and 
interrogative pronouns, the object is always before 
the verb. In the passive voice, also, the object be- 
ing used as the subject, is, necessarily, before the 
verb. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 159 

Remark 2. Some contend, that passive verbs 
are intransitive. By the faulty definition, given 
above, they are right. In truth, however, they 
are entirely wrong, or all our dictionaries are 
wrong. For the dictionaries give all verbs, which 
admit of the passive voice, as transitive. But, 
should the objector say, that dictionaries do not 
give passive verbs at all ; then I answer, that I con- 
ceive they do, just as much as they give infinitive 
verbs, or finite verbs, or any other kinds, which 
take their names from their modifications. 

Remark -3. Every transitive verb admits of 
a passive voice; and no intransitive verb can be 
passive, when used intransitively; for the reason, 
that the passive verb always uses its object for its 
subject, and intransitive verbs have no objects. 

YoiCE. That modification of the verb, which 
distinguishes the relation of the verb to its subject. 

Active Voice. That form which verbs assume, 
whose subjects act. 

Explanation. By this definition, all intransi- 
tive verbs are in the active voice, for they have the 
form of transitive verbs in the active voice. 

Passive Voice. That form which a verb as- 
sumes, to denote that its subject is acted upon. 



60. 

TESTS AND SIGNS. 

Explanation. The use of tests and signs, in 
aiding pupils to form the principal parts and sub- 
ordinate parts of verbs, is given on pages 128-133. 



L. 



160 GRAMMAR. 

Remark. In the Form of Parsing, principal 
parts, and form, are inclosed in parentheses, to 
show that they are not given, in parsing all verbs. 

The principal parts only, of irregular verbs, are 
noticed in parsing; and the /orm only, when it is 
emphatic or progressive. 

61. 

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS AND PARTICIPLES. 

Remark. The construction of finite verbs, is 
generally simple; but the construction of infinitives 
and participles demands close attention. 

In addition to Clark's Rules, or rather in the place 
of his tenth, I would use this 

Rule. Infinitives and participles have the con- 
struction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

In parsing infinitives and participles, the pupils 
sliould give their construction in this manner: 
"With the construction of a noun, being the sub- 
ject of," etc. 

62. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING INFINITIVES. 

To show this more plainly, I will give several 
examples. 

"To steal is base." 

[To] steal, is a verb, irregular, transitive ; steal, 
stole, stealing, stolen, active, infinitive, present, with 
the construction of a noun, being the subject of the 
verb, is. 

" He desired to go." 

[To] go, is a verb, irregular, intransitive, go, went, 
going, gone, active, infinitive, present, with the 



r~ 

ADVANCED TEACHING. 161 

construction of a noun, being the object of the 
verb, desired. 

*' He was unwilling to be called a sbirk." 

[ Jb] be called, is a verb, regular, transitive, pas- 
sive, infinitive, present, with the construction of an 
adverb, limiting the adjective, unwilling. 

" This is the time to study." 

[To] study, is a verb, regular, transitive, active, 
infinitive, present, with the construction of an 
adjective, relating to the noun, time. 

63. 

EXAMPLES OF PARSING PARTICIPLES. 

" I saw the sun rising.^^ 

Rising is a participle, imperfect, active, from rise, 
rose, rising, risen, with the construction of an ad- 
jective, relating to the noun, sun. 

'•By being rejected, his fortune was made." 

Being rejected, is a participle, imperfect, passive, 
from reject, etc., with the construction of a noun, 
being the object of the preposition, by. 



162 



GUAMMAK. 



64. 

OUTLINE OF THE PRONOUN. 

'Terms: Represent, Antecedent, Conseqtient. 

f i r Simple, } Tl.-'^r.' :. !• Inflections. 



Personal, 



.4^ 



I, Thou, I 
He, she, it, j 

Myself, 



S ! Compound, j ^^^y^^i'f^ 
l^cc Peculiar uaes of we, you, and it. 



^ -i 



Who which, ) Inflections, 
That, and as, ) ' 



Simple, 

I 5 ^ n 1 ^ "Whoever, 

Relative,^ S ^ Compound, ^ Whichever, etc. 

^ I -r* n ^ TT'u 4. ^ Thing which, 

^Double, i What = I ^^^ ^^^^^ ^l^i^^ 

, . I Who, which, what, 

(^ interrogative, | Represent the answer of the question. 

Modifications — the same as nouns. 



Form of Parsing, ■{ 



("Species, Class, (sub-class,) 

1 ■ < Person, Number, 



! Agreement, 



Case, 
t Construction, Rule. 



Gender, Rule. 



65. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Represent. To stand in the place of, with simi- 
lar properties. 

Antecedent. A word going before a pronoun, 
and represented by it. 

Consequent. A word coming after a pronoun, 
and represented by it. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 163 

RemarTc. An interrogative pronoun always rep- 
resents a consequent found in the answer of the 
question. 

Personal Pronoun. One that is always used 
for the same grammatical person. 

Remark 1. Clark's definition, "A personal 
pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its form, 
what person it is," appears to me only to apply to 
the pronoun I ; the letter I, being used for the 
number one. But I see nothing in the form of the 
other personal pronouns to indicate their person, 
whether first, second, or third. 

Remark 2. The common definition given for 
a personal pronoun, by the great majority of 
scholars and teachers, viz: "One that stands for 
persons," should be hooted out of every school- 
room. 

Relative Pronoun. One that is not always 
used for the same grammatical person ; and con- 
nects clauses. 

Remark 1. Clark's definition for a relative 
pronoun, is a good one, but I have framed mine 
as antithetic to that for the personal pronoun. 

Remark 2. The common definition for a rela- 
tive pronoun, viz : "One that relates to an an- 
tecedent," is worse, if possible, than that for a 
personal pronoun. If any other teacher finds it 
necessary to use as much labor, as I do, in smoking 
out these vermin, from their lurking places, he has 
my most heartfelt sympathy and commiseration. 

Interrogative Pronoun. One that is used for 
asking questions. 



164 GRAMMAR. 

66. 

EXAMPLES IN PARSING SIMPLE PRONOUNS. 

"I, who was present, know the particulars." 
/is a pronoun, personal, representing the name 
of the speaker, and agreeing with it in the first, 
singular, common, according to Rule 4, Clark. 
It is in the nominative, being the subject of know, 
according to Rule 1, Clark. 

Who is a pronoun, relative, representing its an- 
tecedent, I. and agreeing with it in the first, singu- 
lar, common, according to Rule 4. It is in the 
nominative, being the subject of was, according to 
Rule 1. 

"He pursues just such studies as he likes." 
As is a pronoun, relative, representing its ante- 
cedent, studies, and agreeing with it, in the third, 
plural, neuter, according to Rule 4. It is in the 
objective, being the object of, the verb, likes, and 
governed by it, according to Rule 3. 

"What will become of us without religion." 
What is a pronoun, interrogative, representing 
the answer of the question, in person, number and 
gender unknown ; according to Rule 4. It is in 
the nominative, being the subject of, will become, 
according to Rule 1. 

67. 

EXAMPLES IN PARSING DOUBLE RELATIVES 

" Shall I hide from Abraham lohat 1 do?" 
What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent 
to thing ivhich. Thing, the antecedent part, is a 
noun, common, third, singular, neuter, objective, be- 
ing the object of hide, and governed by it, according 



I 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 165 

to Rule 3. Which, tlie relative part, is a pronoun, 
relative, representing its antecedent, thing ; and 
agreeing with it in the third, singular, neuter, ac- 
cording to Rule 4. It is in the objective, being the 
object of do, and governed by, it, according to Rule 

o 
O. 

" Let the lad become ivhaf you wish him to be.'* 
What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent 
to, thing which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a 
noun, common, third, singular, neuter, indefinite, 
in the predicate, after the intransitive verb, become, 
according to Rule 6 ; lad, being the subject objec- 
tive, before the same verb. Which, the relative 
part, is a pronoun, relative, representing thing, and 
agreeing with it, in the third, singular, neuter ac- 
cording to Rule 4. It is in the objective in the 
predicate, with the intransitive verb, to be ; accord- 
ing to Rule 6; him, being the subject objective 
before the same verb, 

68. 

OUTLINE OF brown's RULES OF SYNTAX. 

c C Nouns with nouns; Rules III, XXI. 

I I Pronouns with nouns; Rules V, VI, VII, VIII. 

<u J Verbs with subjects ; Rules IX, X, XI, XII. 

£ [Verbs with verbs: Rule XIII. 

"^ ('Adjectives to nouns and pronouns; Rules I, IV. 

• I Participles to nouns and pronouns; Rule XIV. 
.2 J Adverbs to verbs, etc.; Rule XV. 
rt I Conjunctions to words and sentences ; Rule XVI, 
^ I Prepositions to words; Rule XVII. 
[ Interjections, no relation; Rule XVIII. 

f Subject of finite verb ; Rule II. 
^ I Subject of infinitive verb ; no rule given. 

I Object of verbs ; Rule XX. 

B J Object of prepositions: Rule XXIT. 

£ ' Possessive case; Rule XTX. 

1 Infinitives ; Rules XXIII, XXIV. 
O Participles ; Rule XIV. 

^Case absolute; Rule XXV. 



166 GRAMMAR. 

69. 

REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. This outline differs from Brown's 
arrangement but in a few particulars, viz : 1st. 
Agreement and relation are sepiirated. 2d. Rule 2, 
which he includes in agreement, I place in govern- 
ment, as I conceive a verb governs or controls the 
case of its subject, just as much as the case of its 
object. 3d. Rule 21 Is placed under the head of 
agreement, for the reason that it is a plain case 
of agreement. 

Remark 2. The subject of the infinitive is pro- 
vided for, in Part III, section 55. 

Remark 3. This outline should be assigned for 
a lesson to the whole class, for review as directed 
in Part III, Section 42 ; and to individuals, for re- 
porting, as explained in Section 43. 

The teacher will require each pupil reporting 
to give a sentence, containing a word, exemplify- 
ing the construction to which each rule relates. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



167 



70. 

OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. 



r r 



< 

Hz 

C 

ti 

O 



r, 



Simple, 

As to form, < Complex, 

Compound. ^ i- i. 
L ^ I Co-ordinate. 

As to Nature i Declarative, 



Complete, 
Abridged. 
Principal, 
Subordinate, 
j Leading, 



of Proposition. 
Subject, 



.2 ' 



Predicate, 

•«* r Adjective, \ 
« < Adverbial, >• 
s [Substantive.) 

"CO 

Connectives, 
Independent Forms, 



Imperative, 

Interrogative. 

Simple, 

Complex, 

Compound. 

Attribute, 
Copula, 

( Simple, 
■< Complex, 
I Compound. 
( Co-ordinate, 
( Subordinate. 

{Expletives, 
Exclamatives, 
Compellatives, 
Circumstances. 



Simple, 

Complex, 

Compound. 

1st Class, 

2d Class, 

3d Class. 



2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

i 8. 

I 9. 



as to form, 

as to proposition. 



Classify the sentence, 

Give complex subject. 

Give simple subject. 

Describe modifiers of subject, in order, by giving 

structure, nature, and class. 
Give base of the modifier, and describe its modifiers, 

in order, as before. 
Give complex predicate. 
Give simple predicate. 
Give attribute and copula. 
Give modifiers, and desrcibe them, as before. 



Remark. Elements of the third class are first 
described as elements, then as sentences according 
to this form. 






168 GRAMMAR. 

OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS — CONCLUDED. 

f ( i Substantive, 

I As to Nature, •< Adjective, 

. , . , 1 I Adverbial. 

*^ Abriaged ■' Vr) »• • • i 

g Sentences ^ f Participial, 

a J^e^^^^'^ces. I J Absolute, 

P. As to Construction, i t <•• •>■■ 

^■{ I 'J Infinitive, 

[ [Participial Noun. 

Method of Abridgment, Remove the Connective, etc. 
See Section 82. 

^1 r A 1 • ( 1st, in the abrid<?ed form, 
I Order of Analysis, ] ^^'^ .^ ^j^^ expanded form. 

71. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Analysis ; see Part II. page 46, section 9. 

Sentence. An enunciation of a tliouglit, in- 
cluding a verb and its subject. 

Simple Sentence. One that contains but one 
proposition, or one assertion and its subject. 

Complete Sentence. One whose verb is finite. 

Abridged Sentence. One whose verb is in the 
infinitive or participial mood. 

Compound Sentence. One that contains two or 
more simple or complex sentences, of equal rank. 

Leading Sentence. The first simple or complex 
sentence, comprised in a compound sentence. 

Coordinate Sentence. Any other sentence than 
the first, and of equal rank with it, in a compound 
sentence. 

Complex Sentence. One that contains a com- 
plete subordinate sentence as a constituent part. 

Principal Sentence. The entire complex sen- 
tence, including all its subordinate sentences. 

Subordinate Sentence. One that is used to 
modify some word or phrase in another sentence 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 169 

72. 

Element. Any part of a sentence ; including 
words, phrases and subordinate sentences. 

Principal Elements. Those without which a 
sentence cannot exist. They are the subject and 
predicate. 

Subject. That of which something is asserted. 
See Part III, Section 59, Verb. 

Predicate. The assertion made of the subject. 

Attribute. That property, quality, characteris- 
tic, name or circumstance, asserted of the subject. 

Copula. That which joins the attribute to the 
subject and makes the assertion. 

Remark. The verb, to be, with its various 
modifications, is commonly used as the copula; 
and any other verb can be resolved into the verb, 
be, and the peculiar attribute which it expresses. 

Subordinate Elements. All elements, other 
than the principal elements. They are adjective, 
adverbial, and substantive. 

Adjective Element. One that modifies a noun. 

Adverbial Element. One that modifies any 
thing else than a noun. 

Explanation. The word noun, in these last two 
definitions, is understood to include any word, 
phrase or sentence, which assumes the functions of 
a noun. 

Substantive Element. One which is used as 
the subject or the object of a transitive verb or 
participle. 



170 ADVANCED TEACHING. 

73. 

Simple Element. One without its modifiers. 

Complex Element. A simple element, with its 
modifiers. The simple element is also called the 
base of a complex element. 

Compound Element. One comprising two or 
more simple or complex elements of equal rank, 
connected by coordinate conjunctions, expressed 
or understood. 

Element of First Class. One whose base is 
a single word. 

Element of Second Class. One w^hose base 
consists of a preposition and its object, including 
infinitive and participial phrases. 

Element of Third Class. One whose base is 
a subordinate sentence. 

74. 

Connective. Any word that joins words, 
phrases or sentences. 

Coordinate . Connective. One that joins sen- 
tences or elements of equal rank. 

Subordinate Connective. One that joins ele- 
ments of unequal rank. 

75. 

Independent Forms. Those which have no 
grammatical construction in a sentence. 

Expletives. Those introductory words that are 
superfluous in the construction of a sentence. 

Examples. 1st. " //f is plain he can do it." 
2d. ^^ John, he is a fine fellow.' 3d. ^^ There is a 
reason for that." It, John, and there, in these 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 



171 



sentences, form no part of the construction, and 
are hence called expletives. 

CoMPELLATivEs. Namcs of persons addressed. 

Circumstances. Phrases containing the case 
absolute, with a participle. See Clark's Grammar, 
page 282, Note III. 

ExcLAMATivES. Words, expressing emotions, in- 
cluding interjections, and case absolute by exclam- 
ation. See Clark's Grammar, page 278. 



76. 

EXAMPLES OF ORAL ANALYSIS BY THE FORM. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

1. I repent, is a simple declarative sentence, of which I is the 
siaiple subject unmodified; and repent, the simple predicate, un- 
modified. 

2. Botk parties disgraced fhemseltes, is a simple declarative sen- 
tence, of which both parties is the modified subject; of which ^^a^- 
ties is the simple subject, modified bj loth, a simple adjective 
element of the first class. Disgraced themselves, is themodified 
predicate, of which disgraced is the simple predicate, modified by 
themselves, VL simple objective element of the first class. 

3. Spirits less tigorovR xvoxdd hate shrunh from such dangers, 
is a simple declarative sentence, of which, spirits less 'vigorous, 
is theiaoJified subject, of which spiritsh the simple, subject modi- 
fied by less vigorous, a complex adjective element of the first 
class, of which vigorous, the base, is modified by less, a simple 
adverbial element of the first class. 

Would have shrunh from such dangers, is themodified predi- 
cate, of which would have shnuih, is the simple predicate, modi- 
fied hy. from such dangers, a complex adverbial element of the 
second class, of which dangers, the noun of the base, is modified 
by such, a simple adjective element of the first class. 

4. Did his natural intrepidity for salce him at the approach of 
death? is a simple interrogative sentence, of which, his natural 
intrepidity is the modified subject, of which intrepidity is the 
simple subject, modified by his and natural, two simple adjective 
elements of the first class. Didforsal-e him, at the approach of 
death, is the complex predicate, of which did frrsahe is the sim- 
ple predicate, modified hy him,, a simple objective element of the 
first class; also by, at the approach of death, a modified adverbial 
element of the second class, of which approach, the noun of the 
base, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first 
class; also by, o/"c?<?a^A, a simple adjective element of the second 
class. 



172 GRAMMAR. 

77. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

5, The chief 7msfortunes that hefall -us in life can he traced to 
vices and follies which loe have committed., is a complex declara- 
tive sentence, of which, fA^ chief inisfirtunes thathef all vsin life., 
is thetnodifiedsubject, of which, misfortunes is the simple sub- 
ject, modified by the and chief two simple adjective elements of 
the first class; also, by that hefall us in life, a simple adjective 
element of the third class. It is also a simple declarative subordi- 
nate sentence, of which, that is the connective and simple subject, 
unmodified. Befall vs in life, is ihe logical predicate, of which 
hefall is the simple predicate, modified by us, a simple objec- 
tive element of the first class; also, by ir) life, a simple ad- 
verbial element of the second class. Gan he traced, and all that 
follows, is the modified predicate, of >^hieh, can he traced is the 
simple predicate, modified by to vices, and and all that follows 
it; a compiiund adverbial element of the second class, of which 
vices or follies, the nouns of the base, are modified by which we 
have committed, a simple adjective eierasnt of the tJiird clas-?. 
It is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, nf which we 
is the simple subject unmodified. Have ommitted which, is the 
logical predicate, of which, hare committed, is the simple predi- 
cate, modified hy ivhich, -a simple objective element of the first 
class; iilso, the connective of the sub rrdinate sentence. 

6. Tloat he is dit^hmest is nianifest, is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which, that he is dishonest is the simple subject, an 
element of the third class; also, a simple declarative subordinate 
sentence, ( f which that is an expletive, anil he the simple subject, 
unm')dified; is di.-honed, is the simple predicate, uamodified, 
dishonest being the attribute, ami is, the opula, 

7, M]i desire is that you may improve, is a ciuuplox declarative 
sentence, of which, my desire is the c^unplex subject: of which, 
desire is the simple subject, modified by iny, a simple adjective 
element of the first clas-. 

Is that ynu may improve, is the modified predicate, of which, is 
is the copula, and, tlcat ymt may improve, is the attribute; also, a 
simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which that is the con- 
nective subordinate, and you, the simple subject, unmodified. 
May improve, is the simple predicate, unmodified. 

78. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

8. I expect that she rvill coine, hut I intend to return, is a coni- 
jiL.x: declarative sentence, of which, I expect that she will come, 
IS the leadinj^ "logicaI~declarative sentence, of which, f is the 
simple subject, unm(dified, and, expect that she will cojne, 
is the complex predicite.of which, expect is the simple predcate, 
modified by that she ivill come, a simple objective element of 
the third class; also a simple declarative subordinate sentence 
of which she is the simple subject, unmodified, and, will come. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 173 

the simple predicate, unmodified. But I intend to return, is 
the coordinate simple declarative sentence, of which hut is the 
coordinate connective, and, / the simple subject, unmodified; 
and, intend to return, is theinodified predicate, of which, intend 
is the simple predicate, modified by, to return, a simple adver- 
bial element of the second class. 



79. 

WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Remark 1. Much time can be gained, in reci- 
tations, by adopting the following plan of exhibit- 
ing the analysis of sentences on the blackboard. 

Remarh 2. Many scholars can be engaged, at 
once, on as many different sentences assigned them, 
provided there is sufficient blackboard. If not, 
those who cannot be accommodated at the board, 
can write their sentence in the analyzed form, on 
their slates, or on paper, which the teacher can ex- 
amine, in order, as he passes around the class. 

Remark 3. After having given a written analy- 
sis, of a sentence, on the board, the pupil should 
analyze it orally, and receive the criticism of the 
class and teacher. 

I have found the discipline of analysis much 
more vigorous and satisfactory, when the written 
and oral methods are combined, than when either 
is used alone. 

Remark 4. Besides, there is so much heauiy in 
the logical arrangement of a sentence, as presented 
to the mind, through the eye, that it would well 
repay the labor, even if it took more time ; but it 
does not. A class will accomplish more, in extent 
and thoroughness, in the same length of time, by 
first analyzing their sentences, on the board. 



174 GRAMMAR. / 

Remark 5. I shall present the written analysis 
of the sentences, as analyzed orally, on page 171, 
et seq. 

80. 

EXAMPLES OF WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 



T ( Parti 

( disgr 



SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

Parties [ Both 
\ repent. | disgraced ] themselves. 

{Spirits 1 vigorous | less 
would have shrunk | from dangers | such. 
^ I intrepidity \l'^^^^^^ 
[did forsake j ^[^pp.o^ch | of^death. 

COMPLEX SEXTENCE8. 

r The 

I chief 

misfortunes J ^, . 
■\ , that 

M [i^-^ll"nlife, 

( to vices ) (we 
can be traced ■< (and) >• •< 
1, ( [to] follies) ( have committed j ^I£^ 

f ( (That) f desire | my 

gj -jhe 7 I ( (that) 

I ( is dishonest J is •< you 

[ is manifest. [ ( may improve. 

COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

(that 

I 
tend I to return 



S i expect \ «^« (^^^^) i ^ 

( expect j ^^^ ^Q^g -^ j^ 



81. 

EXPLANATIONS. 

1. Sentences and elements of the same rank, 
stand in the same vertical column. Hence, in the 
analysis of a sentence, the principal elements stand 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 175 

in the first column ; subordinate elements of tlie 
first degree stand in the second, and so on. 

2. To prevent a subordinate sentence from ap- 
pearing like two elements, it is preceded by a brace. 

3. Words supplied, to make out a construction, 
are enclosed in brackets. 

4. Words not forming a part of tlie construction, 
altbougli expressed in the sentence, are enclosed 
in a parenthesis. Such words are conjunctions, and 
independent forms. 

5. Words having a double use, have a line 
drawn under them. Such words are relative pro- 
nouns, since they are used as connectives and pro- 
nouns ; also, conjunctive adverbs, since they are 
used both as connectives and modifiers. 

6. Double relatives must be separated into their 
two parts, in written anaylsis ; since the antece- 
dent part belongs in the principal sentence, and 
the relative part, in the subordinate. 

82. 
ABRIDGMENT. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Abridgment. That part of analysis which 
treats of contracting sentences, by rejecting con- 
nectives, suppressing subjects of verbs, and chang- 
ing the verbs from the finite moods to infinitives 
and participles. 

Abridged Sentence. One whose verb is an in- 
finitive or participle. 

Substantive Abridged Sentence. One that is 
used as the subject or object of a verb. 



176 GRAMMAR. 

Adjective Abridged Sentence. One that is 
used to modify a noun, pronoun, or substantive 
clause. 

Participial Abridged Sentence. One whose 
leading word of construction is a participle. 

Infinitive Abridged Sentence. One whose 
leadins: word of construction is an infinitive. 

Absolute Abridged Sentence. One whose 
leadinsc word of construction is the nominative 
case absolute. 

Method of Abridgment. Remove the connec- 
tive, change the finite verb to an infinitive or par- 
ticiple, and suppress the subject, provided it is the 
same as that of the verb in the principal sentence. 

ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

1st. Analyze in the abridged form. 2d. Expand 
the sentence by supplying the connective and sub- 
ject, and changing the mood of the verb to a finite 
mood. 3d. Analyze in the complete form. 

Remark. In written analysis, these two forms 
of the subordinate sentence, may be connected by 
a curving sign of equality. 

Note. — Teachers, who use Clakk's Grammar, will find the 
various seutenees classified and exhibited with still greater 
precision by the use of his System of Diagrams. The Copy- 
right on which prevents my using thera in this book. ' 



PAKT IV. 

METHODS OF TEACHING 
GEOGRAPHY. 



INTRODUCTION 



PROPER AGE FOR COMMENCING THE STUDY OF 
GEOGRAPHY. 

As soon jis tlie child is able to read well enougli 
to obtain ideas from wbat lie reads, in as difficult 
a class of sentences as tliose found in the primary 
Geography, proposed to be used, it is desirable that 
he have the advantages of the variety which the 
Geography will give to his reading lessons. It 
would be folly, of course, to set such a child to 
studying a book designed for higher classes. 

It is a great mistake to keep a child confined to 
one book, whether Speller, Reader, or Geography; 
or to keep him confined to books entirely ; a slate 
and pencil are indispensable concomitants of books, 
from the first. 

ORAL INSTRUCTION BEFORE THE BOOK. 

I may repeat here, what I said in reference to 
Grammar. No lesson should be required of a 
young pupil, in the text-book, till he has had a 
preliminary drill, and the teacher is satisfied that 
he can comprehend the subject, so far as the les- 
son in the text-book extends. 

(179) 



180 GEOGRAPHY. 

NECESSITY or APPARATUS IN TEACHING 
GEOGRAPHY. 

Some teachers suppose, that apparatus is only 
necessary in High Schools and Colleges ; others, 
that it does not belong to them to purchase it; 
and multitudes of others do not know what it is, 
and would not know what to do with it, if it were 
placed in their hands. This is obvious, from the 
manner in which the apparatus, furnished by the 
State of Ohio, has been abused, neglected and de- 
stroyed, in the large majority of schools, where it 
has been placed. " It is of no account," says one. 
" I don't know what to do with it," says another. 
" Take away your fly-traps," says a third. " Them 
things will do for play things; I don't know what 
other use to make on 'em," says the fourth; and so 
on through every variety of ignorance and stu- 
pidity. 

Of the twenty thousand dollars' worth of appa- 
ratus supplied to the schools by the State of Ohio, 
if at this time all that remains in our country 
schools were put up at auction, to be bid for by 
the teachers who have used the apparatus, I doubt 
whether one hundred dollars would be off"ered for 
it. Such is the lamentable ignorance prevalent 
among teachers in this direction, that Normal In- 
stitutes should be established in every county, to 
be in session long enough to instruct every teach- 
er, at least, in the use of the blackboard and globe, 
and then no certificate should be granted to any 
one who could not show a good degree of facility 
in applying the illustrations. 



INTRODUCTION. 181 

I say, then, that a globe is indispensable to the 
correct teaching of primary classes in GeograjDhy. 
I know of a child who had learned Parley's little 
Geography, "by heart," at school and could repeat 
it from one end to the other, who, when she saw a 
small globe, in her father's hand, as he brought it 
home, addressed him thus : " Pa, what is that 
round thing in your hand?" The father replied; 
"It is a globe, Fannie." "A globe? What is 
that?" "Why it shows what shape the world 
is." " Why, Pa, is the world round like that?" 
" Hav'nt you repeated a hundred times, the 
world is round and like a ball flies swinging in 
the air?" "Oh, yes. Pa, but I never knew it 
before." 

If that girl's teacher had had a globe, she would 
not, probably, have known what use to make of it. 
A globe of the most convenient size only costs a 
dollar. If the teacher has n't a dollar to buy a 
globe, and cannot borrow it, he ought to make 
one, or make use of an orange or an apple ; or, if 
he cannot spare those, for such a purpose, he might 
use a piece of chalk, a potato, or his fist. 

OBJECTS TO BE AIMED AT IN TEACHING PRIMARY 
GEOGRAPHY 

1st. Learning to Study. Study is necessary to 
any desirable progress in learning to read ; for if 
the scholar only reads while he is engaged in his 
class, he can only be familiarizing his eye with the 
forms of words some fifteen or twenty minutes, at 
most, during the day ; while the scholar who studies^ 



182 GEOGRAPHY. 

may be engaged in the same operation several 
hours each day. The progress of the latter will be 
more than proportionally rapid and satisf^ictory. 

2d. Learning to Draw. The use of the hand 
and eye, in drawing, is conceded, by all intelligent 
Educators, to be an important aim in the education 
of every person. The drawing of Maps, on the 
slate, blackboard or paper, is an easy and excellent 
introduction to the art. 

Map Drawing also imprints the local geography 
on the mind, more correctly and permanently than 
any other method ; it also affords the necessary va- 
riety to school exercises, to make them healthful 
and pleasant. 

3d. Learning to Read. The consideration of this 
object has been forestalled in discussing the others. 
I will, however, add, that since Geography may be 
made more interesting than any reading lesson^ it 
will more thoroughly arouse the pupil to voluntary 
effort in the preparation of his lessons, which, of 
course, will secure more rapid advancement in intel- 
ligent and intelligible reading. 

4th. Learninc; Geography. 

This is a worthy object, but less in importance, 
in my estimation, than any other mentioned, at the 
age at which a scholar should commence the study. 

METHODS OF PRELIMINARY DRILL. 

Many of the following pages will be given to the 
various plans to be adopted in preliminary drills, 
involving the use of the globe, of the blackboard, 
of the neighborhood and townshij); and of any 



INTRODUCTION. 183 

travel that the seliolars may have enjoyed, for il- 
lustration; also, of maps both small and large. 

METHODS OF CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 

The methods of conducting recitations have been 
so fully explained and exemplified, in the preced- 
ing branches, that comparatively little attention 
will be given to them in Part lY. 

METHOD OF USING PART IV. 

The teacher will consult it, in his daily prepara- 
tion for his classes. 

TEXT-BOOKS USED. 

Monteith & McNally's series of Geographies are 
highly recommended as the best now before the 
public ; and I shall refer to them continually, in 
the following pages, for the material of illustr&tion 
and exemplification in the methods described. 

OBJECT LESSONS. 

In connection with the lessons in Geography, it 
is well for a teacher to make use of various objects, 
not only for illustration, such as globe and maps, 
but of common things, such as corn, wheat, ap- 
ples, woods of various kinds, etc.; also to bring 
before the class, the productions of foreign coun- 
tries, or to induce the scholars to do so. Such 
objects serve by suitable conversation, to aiouse 
thought, to train children to observe, and to oun 
nect book lessons, with existing TmxGs. 



METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY TO 

PRIMARY CLASSES. 

1. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. The class should be able to read the 
simple style of the Primary Greography used, m- 
lelUgcntly; not necessarily, fluently. They should 
all be provided with some Primary Geography, and 
all with the same kind. 

Remark 2. The teacher should be provided 
with a five-inch globe, at least. Such a globe, 
mounted on a stand, can be purchased for one dol- 
lar. It would be well for the teacher to provide 
himself also with maps of the town, township, 
county and state, in which his school is situated. 

Remark 3. It is understood that Greography is 
the first branch of science, to which the pupil is 
introduced ; that it comes in connection with a 
Second or Third Reader, but does not displace it. 

2. 

LESSON I. 

First Step — How to secure Books. The 
teacher havino; called a readino; class to the recita- 
tion seat, ascertains how many have Geographies, 
and how many have the right kind. He finds the 
children wide awake with the idea of taking up a 
(184) 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 185 

new study, in a new book. It is only necessary 
for him to say, that those who can obtain the book 
used by the class, can study Geography, and that 
it will be impossible for others to join the class. 
He will then inquire how many there are who 
think they cannot get the book. If any, he should 
visit the parents, or write a note and send it by 
the hand of the pupil, who will use all a child's 
eloquence, in connection with the note, to obtain 
the desired book. The child will not fail, unless 
the parent is absolutely too poor or too drunken to 
purchase it; in which case, the teacher should sup- 
ply the book himself, or apply to the Directors, or 
other benevolent individuals, to do it. No child 
will be permitted to remain behind his class, from 
poverty, by the True Teacher. 

3. 

Second Step — Exciting an Interest. Teacher. 
You have new Greographies, some of you; by to- 
morrow, I hope you will all have them. You see 
it is full of pictures and maps ; and reading that 
tells you about the pictures and explains the maps. 
G-eography is a very interesting study. Why, see ; 
here is the picture of the Natural Bridge, which is 
ten times as high as this house, and is one solid 
rock. A boy once climbled to the top of it, by 
cutting steps, with his jack-knife, into the rock. 
When he got up so high that he could n't jump 
down, he tried to go down by his steps, and 
couldn't do it, without falling; then all that he 
could do, was to try to cut his way to the top of the 
bridge, several hundred feet. Bo you suppose he 



186 GEOGKAPHY. 

ever reached tlie top? He did, aud all tlie people, 
for miles, had collected on the bridge to see him. 
Then, here is a picture of Bunker Hill Monu- 
ment, where the British soldiers were mowed 
down by the bullets of American farmers and me- 
chanics, when the British wanted to make slaves 
of them. Here also, are beautiful pictures of a 
great many fine buildings and large cities. By 
studying Geography, you will find out all about 
them. Is not Greography an interesting study? 

4. 

Third Step — Explanation op Maps. Teacher . 
Now, I want to show you about these maps, that 
are painted so prettily. See, here is the map of 
the Western Hemisphere. How many can tell me 
what a map is for? [Hands rise.] Well, John, 
what do you think a map is for? John. (^Hesitat- 
ingly.^ Maps show how the countries look. 
[Several hands spring up.] Teacher. Isaac. 
Isaac. I don't think the countries look that way, 
all red and yellow. Teacher. No ; the country is 
generally green in the summer. Maps are not 
designed to show the color of countries, but their 
shape on the surface of the earth. Here, I'll 
draw a map of our school yard for you, on the 
blackboard. [Teacher draws.] See, here is where 
the front fence runs ; here are the side fences. 
Now, where shall I put the school-house? Here? 
Where the wood-house? Here? And, here the 
pump stands ; and here the outhouse, and here 
the walk to the gate, etc., etc. In the same way I 
could draw a map of the town, and could show 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 187 

you, on the map, where each one of you lives. 
How many would like to learn to draw maps? 
[All hands come up.] Well ; I will show you to- 
morrow. 

5. 

Fourth Step — The Gtlobe. Here is a Globe. 
It is designed to show the shape of the Earth, in 
which we life. You see it has maps on it. Now, 
I can show you where the country is, in this 
globe, on which you live. See, here is North 
America, and here are the Great Lakes, and just 
about there, [sticking a pin,] is where you are now. 
This globe is five inches in diameter, or through 
it ; and fifteen inches, or a little more than a foot, 
in circumference, or around it. How large do you 
suppose this great ball is, on which we stand? 
(^Stamping.') Why, it is eight thousand miles 
through it, and twenty-five thousand miles around 
it, and it takes a whole year to travel round it. 
Perhaps, some one of you knows some person that 
has sailed round the world. 

6. 

Fifth Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. 
You may now open your books, those of you that 
have books, to this picture of the Earth, and we 
will see if we can read Lesson I. I will read the 
fine print, and you may read the coarse print. 

All look on, now. and see if I read ris-ht. 
[Teacher reads.] '-What is the planet, on which 
we live, called?" John you may read the coarse 
print. \jJolin reads.] "It is c^^lled the Earth." 
Teacher. Very well. You see that the coarse 



188 



GEOGRAPHY. 



print answers the question in fine print. I will 
read tlie next question. [Reads.] "What is the 
shape of the Earth?" Mary, you may read the an- 
swer. Mary reads. "It is very nearly round." 
Teacher. Now Samuel, you may read the next 
question. Samuel reads. "Do we live on the out- 
side or inside of the Earth?" Teacher. Susan, you 
may read the answer. Susan reads. "On the out- 
side." Teacher. Yery well. Now you all see how 
to read this. I wish you to read over the questions 
and answers, so many times to yourselves, when you 
go to your seats, that you can give me the an- 
swers without looking on the book, when you come 
to me, to recite to-morrow. How many of you think 
that you will be able to answer all the questions in 
Lesson I, by to-morrow morning? [All hands rise,] 
Very well. You may take your books home to-night, 
if you have a mind to, and study your lesson at 
home ; I shall not be surprised if you get two les- 
sons, but I shall only hear you recite one. You 
may go to your seats now, in order. 

7. 

LESSON II. 

First Step — Have all Books? Teacher. — 
How many have books today? [Books^rise.] If 
any have not yet got the books, the teacher decides 
in his own mind, how they may be provided, and 
informs the scholars deficient, how it can be done. 



Second Step — Be citation. The teacher having 
enrolled the names of the pupils in his register, 
calls from the register the name of one pupil ; say, 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 



189 



Amanda. [Amanda rises.] Teacher. [With 
Griobe in his hand.] "What is the planet, on 
which we live, called?" Amanda. "It is called 
the Earth." Teacher. Very well. Amanda is 
excused. James, [James rises.] " What is the 
shape of the Earth?" James. "It is round." 
[Hands rise.] Teacher, Sarah. Sarah. " It is 
very nearly round." Teacher. Right, Sarah. 
James is excused. 

Remark. Scholars, when offering criticisms or 
corrections, do it sitting; but never without per- 
mission from the teacher. 

Teacher. I will ask you all a question not in the 
book. Is the earth round, like a plate, or like the 
stove pipe, or like this ball? How many can tell? 
[Hands rise.] Maria. Maria. It is round like 
a ball. Teacher. Then it is a ball, is n't it? How 
deep must a hole be, to go through this globe, 
right through the center. [No hands rise.] — 
Teacher. Five inches. But how deep would a 
well have to be to o-o down throu^'h the Earth, 
right through the center? [No hands rise.] How 
far through did I say the Earth was, yesterday? 
[Some hands rise.] EPfenry. Henri/. Eight hun- 
dred miles. Teacher. Eight thousand miles ; 
and how long would it take to go through such a 
well or tunnel, if you could go in a railroad car, 
with the speed of thirty miles an hour? Well, it 
would take more than twenty days, traveling twelve 
hours a day. That would be a long journey, in a 
tunnel, would n't it? 

Thus the lesson is pursued, by proposing the 



190 GEOGRAPHY. 

questions, in the book, till all the scholars have 
been reached, one or more times. If any scholar 
fail on one question, he is tried on another; and 
then on another, till the teacher satisfies himself 
as to the amount of study tlie scholar has be- 
stowed on his lesson. He is then graded, accord- 
ingly, in the register. 

9. 

Third Step — Drawing on Slates. Teacher. 
I wish you to draw this map of the AYestern Hem ■ 
isphere, on your slates, for a part of your next les- 
son ; and bring your slates when you come to re- 
cite. I will draw it for you, on the blackboard. 
The teacher first draws the circle by taking a 
string as a radius, holding one end, in one hand, 
stationary, on the board ; the other end, with a 
piece of chalk, in the other hand, he carries around 
on the board, forming the circle. He then draws 
the continent, with the general divisions, prints 
the names, and makes a do.t, in a small figure, rep- 
resenting his own State, in the map. The children 
are thus encouraged to do what they see done, 
and perhaps will even try to excel the master, in 
drawing a map. He requires them only to draw 
the outline for the first lesson. 

10. 

Fourth Step — Dismissing the Class. The next 
lesson being assigned, and the grades of the class 
being read aloud for their encouragement or incite- 
ment, they are dismissed from the recitation seat, 
in order, by calling their numbers, as written in 
the class register. 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 191 

11. 

LESSON III. 

First Step. The teacher examines the slates, 
points out the excellences and errors of each draw- 
ing ; gives his attention to the evenness of the 
curve ; the shape and position of the countries ; 
the size and regularity of the letters in the print- 
ing. He finds several of the class who could not 
make a circle, and so failed of doing anything. 
Instead of scolding them, or making any diseour 
aging comparisons, he takes a slate and makes a 
circle ; then tells all the scholars to make one. He 
then proceeds to draw the map, on the slate, re- 
questing them all to follow him on their own slates, 
as he draws, holding his slate before the class. 

Thus by encouragement, by aid judiciously 
given, map-drawing is fairly commenced, and will 
not be laid aside, till the study of Geography is 
abandoned. 

It will be well to include the consideration of 
map-drawing, in the grading. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Assigning the next Lesson, in- 
cluding the drawing of the same map, with the 
gulfs and lakes, in addition to the outline of the 
continent. 

12. 
lesson IV. 

FresT Step — Examination of Drawings. 

Second Step — Recitation. This recitation 
should be conducted, with the globe in the hand 
of the teacher ; and the scholars should be called 
9 



192 GEOGRAPHY. 

upon to decide wliicli is land and wliich is water, 
on the globe ; also wliich is the Western and which 
is the Eastern Hemisphere, and the Northern and 
the Southern Hemisphere, on the globe. 

In fiict, the globe should be constantly in use, 
in every recitation, to give correct ideas of the rel- 
ative size of countries; their true direction from 
each other, which never can be obtained from maps. 

Third Step — Assigning next Lesson, including 
another drawing lesson. It may be the same map, 
with the hikes, seas, islands, and all the details as 
far as given. 

13. 

LESSON V. 

First Step — Examination of Maps. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Points of Compass. The teacher 
should be careful, that the scholars get clear and 
correct ideas of direction, not only on the map, but 
on the Earth itself. He should begin with the 
school-room, and have the class understand defi- 
nitely the four cardinal points of the compass, in 
the school-room. The pupils should obtain them 
from the rising and setting sun. He should 
also use the globe, in this connection, and show 
how these directions lie on the globe. 

Having explained the eight most important 
points of compass, in connection with the globe, 
the teacher proceeds, somewhat thus, in question- 
ing the class. 

Teacher. (^Holding the globe in Ms hand.') — 
Which way is North America, from South Amer- 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 193 

ica, on tliis globe? You may all answer together. 
How many of you can point towards South Amer- 
ica, on the Earth? As many as can, may do it. 

Which way is Europe from North America, on 
the globe? Now, if you were about to start for 
Europe, which way would you travel? 

Which way is Asia from North America? 

The scholars give various answers. One says 
East ; another, West ; another, it is on the other 
side, etc. 

Teacher. You may point now, if you can, to- 
wards Asia. 

The class have the same difficulty in pointing as 
in telling the direction. 

Teacher. If a fly were walking on this globe, 
which way would it go from North America to 
reach Asia. All together. 

Class. East, West, (in confusion?) 

Teacher. Would it not reach Asia, if it should 
walk, continuously, in any direction? East, West, 
North or South? 

Then, which way would you go on the Earth's 
surface, to reach Asia? 

But, you may now point directly towards Asia, 
without reference to traveling. 

Most of the scholars point downwards. 

Teacher. Some of you are right ; Asia is on 
the other side of the lilarth, but not directly oppo- 
site to us. 

If a hole were dug down through the Earth, 
where would it come out? 

Class. In Asia. In the ocean. 



194 GEOGRAPHY. 

Teacher. Some of you are right and some 
wrong. A hole would not come out in Asia, if 
dug directly down ; it would have to be inclined 
somewhat towards the north. Do you think a 
person, in going through such a hole or tunnel, 
would come out head foremost or feet foremost in 
Asia? Such a hole will never be made, but the 
people, in Asia, stand with their heads pointing 
nearly in the same direction that our feet do. 

Thus, no pains should be spared to connect the 
words of the hooh with the ideas of existing things. 

The great and crying evil of teaching, is, that 
hooh knowledge is kept isolated from real knowl- 
edge ; and the evil, generally, begins with the first 
lessons of the child, and ends with the last lessons 
of the collegiate graduate. 

14. 

LESSON VI. 

Conclusion of Primary Teaching. I shall 
conclude these explanations of Primary Teaching, 
by a few general remarks. 

EemarJc 1. The most common phenomena, as 
the rising and setting of the sun, should be ex- 
plained to a'primary class, from time to time, in 
order to give interest and variety to the study. 

Remarh 2. The globe should be kept con- 
stantly in hand, that no erroneous impressions 
may be derived from maps, with regard to the 
true position of places. 

Remark 3. The same map should be assigned 
to the class, for drawing lessons, several days in 
succession. They should only be required to draw 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 195 

the outline, on the first day. Then, in successive 
days, they should make new drawings, embracing 
all the work of the previous daya; and should 
add, in order, first the larger bodies of water, and 
islands, if any; secondly, rivers and mountains; 
thirdly, boundaries of political divisions; and, 
lastly, localities of cities and towns. The printing 
of names should keep pace with the other work. 

Remark 4. The drawings may be made on pa- 
per, after a sufiicient practice on slates. Drawing, 
of course, will not be confined to maps ; though 
every map in the book should be so learned, that 
the scholars can go to the blackboard and draw it, 
without looking on the book, at all, while drawing it. 

Remark 5. The teacher should instruct the 
class to look out the pronunciation of the geo- 
graphical names in the vocabulary, at the end of 
the book. 

Remark 6. Frequent reviews should be taken ; 
sometimes, by the maps; sometimes, by outlines, 
prepared by the teacher; sometimes, by asking 
promiscuous questions on the matter passed over 
in one week. Scholars should have opportunity 
to prepare themselves for reviews, as well as for 
advanced lessons. A wide awake teacher will ex- 
cite more interest in the review lesson than in the 
advance lessons. 



n 



METHOD OF TEACHING INTERMEDIATE 

CLASSES. 

15. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. The class should be able to read 
the style of the Intermediate Geography, intelli- 
gently and fluently. They should be able to write 
a legible hand, with facility ; and should be train- 
ed in the use of the dictionary, in ascertaining the 
pronunciation, spelling and meaning of words* 
They should, of course, all be provided with dio.- 
tionaries, either Webster's Academic, or Worces- 
ter's Comprehensive. 

Remark 2. The teacher should be provided 
with a five-inch globe, and a set of Outline Maps. 
Instead of Outline Maps, the teacher can make 
use of any maps whatever, of large size, situated 
so far from the class, that the names cannot be 
recognized. The beautiful Maps in McNally's Geo- 
graphy are well adapted to this use. The pupil can 
draw a series of outline maps of a larger size, 
making use of McNally's maps for his guide (omit- 
ting all the small cities and towns), and introducing 
the course of rivers and all boundary lines — and 
when finished, tack them to the wall, or blackboard, 
for class exercises. 
(196) 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 197 

16. 

Remark 3. It is supposed, that those who 
study Intermediate Geography, are also studying 
Arithmetic, Reading and Spelling. 

Kemarh 4. In graded schools, a half hour 
should he devoted to this recitation. In ungraded 
district schools, not less than fifteen minutes are 
required to arouse any degree of interest that will 
be profitable in the least. 

Remark 5. Some teachers require their pupils 
to purchase "Topic Books," at an expense nearly 
half as great as that of the Geography. I think all 
the advantages of Topic Books can be secured 
without them, and more. Instead of the pupil's 
using a Topic Book, when he is learning his les- 
son, and reciting, he will do better to write on pa- 
per, or on his slate, the topics of his lesson, when 
he is studying; and use them in the recitation, in 
the manner described below. All speculations in 
books, and, especially, in those which are not in- 
dispensable, are likely to raise complaints from 
parents, and to impair a teacher's influence. 
Should a teacher introduce any books whatever, 
he will find it a matter of economy to furnish them 
to his scholars at cost. 

17. 

LESSON I. 

First Step — Topic Lists. Teacher. My young 
friends, we commence, to-day, in a new Geogra- 
phy. You will pursue a very different course, in 
this work, from what you did in studying the Pri- 
mary Geography. I was accustomed to ask you 



198 



GEOGRAPHY. 



tlie questions, in that book, and you to answer 
them, in the very words of the book. I shall not 
ask the questions, in this book, but wish you to 
prepare Topic Lists, when you study your lessons, 
and to recite your lessons from them. I will write 
the first one for you, on the board. [He writes.] 
Geographyf Earth? Earth's Snrfocef Land? 
Water? Natural Divisions? Artificial Divisions? 
Political Divisions? Matheonatical Divisions? Phys- 
ical Geography? Includes lohat? Political Geogra- 
phy? Includes ivhat? Mathematical Geography? 
Includes tohat? Divisions of Geography? I will 
let this Topic List remain on the board, and you 
may copy it, on to loose paper, or into your writ- 
ing books, in a very neat style, and study your 
lesson by it. Some of the topics you will find 
discussed or explained, in the coarse print, in the 
answers of the book; and some of them, in the 
fine print, in the questions. 

18. 
Second Step — Explanation of the Method op 
Reciting. Teacher. Children, when you come 
to recite, I shall ask you no questions. But, I 
wish each one to bring his Topic List, and to re- 
cite from that. I shall give each of you an equal 
amount of time, to recite in ; and we will see who 
can go over the most ground, and in the most cor- 
rect manner. 

19. 
Third Step — Concert Exercise on Map and 
Globe. Teacher. We will now take a short exer- 
cise on an Outline Map. 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 199 

The teacher places a Map of the "World, in a 
conspicuous position, and calls on the class to go 
over with him, in a concert exercise, the principal 
bodies of land and water ; also, the Hemispheres, 
Eastern and Western, Northern and Southern. In 
the concert exercise, the class give each name 
twice, as they proceed; that, at the second pronun- 
ciation of the word, all may join in. 

When it shall be found that all can harmonize, 
in the concert exercise, as the teacher only points 
to the different localities, a scholar may be called 
on to give the localities, pointing for himself. 
Then the class may go over the same concert ex- 
ercise, while a pupil points. 

Then the globe may be used, instead of the map, 
for the same concert exercises ; the teacher holding 
it in his hand. Thus the time allotted maybe oc- 
cupied. The teacher, having designated the extent 
of the lesson again, dismisses the class, in order. 

20. 

LESSON 11. 

First Step — Division of Time. The teacher 
needs at least a half hour for this recitation. If 
his school is well classified, he can allow this 
amount of time; possibly more. According to the 
number of scholars in the class, and the time of 
the recitation, he should assign, not less than one. 
nor more than two minutes, for each scholar to re- 
cite in. There is a great advantage in giving a 
definite time to each scholar. It excites the schol- 
ar to a more thorough preparation ; to a more rapid 
utterance ; to greater activity of thought ; to a great- 
9* 



"n 



200 



GEOGRAPHY. 



cr accuracy of expression ; all this from the fact, 
that he is graded on what he accomplishes, in the 
time assigned him, and on the manner in which he 
accomplishes it. 

21. 

Second Step — The Recitation by Topics. The 
teacher, having the names of his class enrolled, calls 
on a pupil, from his register, to commence the reci- 
tation. He commences with the Topic List, and 
goes as far, and as well as he is able, till his time 
expires; when the class are called on for criticism. 
All scholars, having criticisms to offer, raise their 
hands. The teacher gives permission to some one, 
who is least inclined to offer criticism, to do so. 
Then, on others, till all errors, of the pupil reciting, 
shall have been reached. The pupil, having re- 
cited, is then graded. The teacher calls on another 
scholar to go on with the recitation, commencing 
with the topics where the first scholar left off; and 
so on, with other pupils, over and over the Topic 
List till all of the scholars are called on; or until the 
time is spent. _ The grading shows, which scholars 
are called on. If any are omitted, they should, of 
course, be first, in order, at the next recitation. 

22. 

Third Step — Concert Exercise, on Map and 
Globe. If time should remain, after the recitation, 
from the topics assigned, it may always be emploj^ed 
to good advantage, in concert exercise, as before 
described. Indeed, it will be well to reserve a part 
of the time, after a few of the first recitations by top- 



n 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 201 

ics, for this purpose, even though all the scholars 
are not called on to recite, at each recitation. 

Remark. Scholars will be inclined to mention 
every topic, before amplifying it. This is awk- 
ward. They should proceed with the subject mat- 
ter, without mentioning the topics, unless espe- 
cially requested to do so. r 

In this way, they soon become able to pursue a 
continued and sj'stematic course of thought, orally; 
improving, from day to day, in rapidity of utter- 
ance, precision of language, and clearness of ex- 
pression. 

23. 

Fourth Step — Assigni^:g a Lesson. The teach- 
er will do well, for a few of the first lessons, to write 
down the topics, on the board, which the class can 
copy, after they take their seats, provided they sit 
in the recitation room ; if not, the teacher should 
write the topics, on the board, before the recitation 
commences; that the scholars may copy them, dur- 
ing the recitation. The topics, thus used from 
day to day, should, each of them, be written neatly, 
in a blank book, procured for the purpose. 

Scholars will thus form, for themselves, a Topic 
BooJcj which will be used also in reviews. In doing 
it, particular attention should be given to spelling, 
capital letters, neatness of arrangement, and econ- 
omy in the use of paper. The teacher should have 
regular times for examining the Topic Books. If 
other books cannot be obtained by the pupil, apart 
of the writing book may be set apart for this pur- 
pose ; though a few sheets of paper, folded' twice, 



( 

202 GEOGRAPHY. 

and properly covered and stitched, make a more 

convenient book. 

24. 
lesson iii. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Explanation of Terms, in Math- 
ematical Geography. The globe should be used, 
for this purpose. The diurnal and annual revolu- 
tions can be shown as going on, simultaneously, 
by suspending the globe by a string, from the 
hand; or better, from a nail driven into the ceiling. 

25. 

LESSON IV. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Explanation op Points of Com- 
pass. The points of compass should be explained 
by the rising and setting sun, by the use of the 
globe ; also, by practice on the surface of the Earth 
itself, by requiring scholars to point in the direction 
of various countries, as ascertained from the globe. 

26. 

LESSON V. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Explanation of Terms, used in 
next lesson, by the use of the globe. 

Third Step — Concert Exercise on the globe, 
of mathematical points, (poles,) lines, and divisions. 
The teacher conducts this, by holding the globe in 
his hand, and pointing with his pencil to the sev- 
eral localities of such points, lines, and divisions, 
while the class proceed, in concert, to name them. 
The class may also add, in the concert exercise, the 
lengths of diameter and circumference in miles. 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 203 

27. 

LESSON VI. 

First Step — Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Explanation of Zones, by tlie 
globe. 

Remarh. Zones can hardly be well explained, 
or understood, from the map alone ; the same is 
true of meridians and parallels of latitude. 

Teacher. I wish to show you about the Zones ; 
why they are marked, as you find them on the map, 
here. You notice, that this globe is supported by 
an inclined wire, representing its axis. It is in- 
clined 23^ degrees to the plane of this table. So 
the Earth is inclined 23^ dearrees to an extended 
plane, passing through its own centre as it goes on 
in its orbit, and the center of the sun. If the 
Earth's axis stood upright, there would be neither 
zones nor seasons — no summer nor winter here, 
nor anywhere else, on the Earth. 

I will now suppose my hat to be the Sun, as it 
stands here on the table. This globe represents the 
Earth, in its orbit or path, as it passes around the 
Sun. I will place the axis so that it shall incline 
towards the north, and place the globe in the eastern 
part of its orbit. [The teacher takes a position east 
of the table, with the globe in his hand, inclined 
towards the north.] Now, you will see, that the 
Sun, my hat there, would shine equally, on both 
poles ; but as the Earth passes on towards the 
northern part of its orbit, keeping its axis always 
inclined towards the north, the Sun does not shine 
on both the north and the south pole. When it 



204 GEOGRAPHY. 

arrives at the northern part of its orbit, the axis 
inclines directly away from the Sun, and since the 
Sun shines only on half the globe at once, it can- 
not reach the north pole with its rays of light and 
heat, but they fall short of it, 23 J degrees ; just as 
much as the axis is inclined. They also pass over 
beyond the south pole, 23^ degrees. By varying 
the inclination, you can see this more plainly. If 
the axis lies down flat, the Sun shines on the south- 
ern hemisphere only, and its rays do not strike 
north of the equator; that is, they do not come 
within 90 degrees of the north pole, because the 
axis is now inclined away from the Sun, 90 degrees. 
Again ; if the axis stands upright, you can see that 
the Sun's rays would reach the north pole; that is, 
since there is no inclination, the rays do not fall 
short of either pole or go over either pole. You 
will then perceive, that just as much as the Earth's 
axis is inclined, just so much will the sun fail of 
reaching one pole, while it shines just as much 
over the other. You will notice, too, that this pin, 
[the teacher should insert the pin in the direction 
of a radius of the globe,] inserted into the globe, at 
the southern tropic, 23^ degrees from the equator, 
will have the Sun directly over its head, when the 
Earth is at the northern part of its orbit. 

I will now carry the globe around to the western 
part of its orbit, and will stick another pin into the 
globe, at the equator. You now see, that the Sun 
is overhead, at the equator, but as the Earth passes 
on towards the south, the pin will be inclined away 
from the Sun. The Earth is now at the southern 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 205 

point of its orbit, and I will stick a pin in at the 
northern tropic; and you see that its head points 
directly towards the Sun. Now, these two pins 
inserted at the tropics are at the greatest distance 
north and south, where the Sun can be over the 
heads of the people, on the Earth. If the Earth's 
axis were more, or less, inclined, this would not be so. 

All that part of the Earth's surfice, then, be- 
tween the tropics, has the Sun directly overhead, 
sometime during the year, and hence, is the hottest 
part of the Earth, and is called the torrid, or burn- 
ing zone. Those parts around the poles, within a 
circle, 23|- degrees from the poles, since the rays 
of the Sun do not reach them, at all, during some 
part of the year, are very cold, and are called 
frigid or frozen zones ; while these larger belts, 
between the torrid and frigid zones, are called tem- 
perate zones. 

Third Step — Assigning the Lesson. 

28. 

LESSON VII. 

Eirst Step — ^Recitation by Topics. 

Second Step — Questions on the explanation of 
the Zones, as given yesterday. 

Teacher. Class, how much is the Earth's axis 
inclined? How many can tell? All who can, may 
raise their hands. fHands rise.] Teacher. Jane. 
Jane. Twenty-three and a half degrees. Teacher. 
How many think Jane is right? [Nearly all hands 
rise.] How many think she is wrong? [No hands 
rise.] Well, Isaac, don't you know any thing about 
it? Isaac. No, sir; I forgot. Teacher. I hope 



206 GEOGRAPHY. 

you will try to remember, now. Isaac. I don't 
know what degrees mean. Teacher. That was 
explained some time ago; but I will show you 
again. [lie draws a circle, on the board, and di- 
vides it circumference into four parts.] Each one 
of these parts is divided into 90 parts, which are 
called degrees; so any circle, here on the globe, or 
oiF from it, is divided into four times 90 degrees, or 
860 degrees. Now, how many of the class can 
tell me what a degree is? [Hands rise.] Teacher. 
John. John. A degree is a 360th part of a circle. 
Teacher. Yery well. Isaac, can you tell me now, 
what degrees are? Isaac. Yes, sir ; degrees are 
360th parts of a circle. Teacher. And, how many 
of these degrees is the Earth inclined? Isaac. — 
Twenty three and a half. Teacher. [Turning the 
globe so that its axis is horizontal.] Can any of 
you tell me how much the Earth's axis is inclined 
now? [No hands rise.] Teacher. I will show 
you. [Taking the globe from the stand.] Now 
the axis is not inclined at all, as it stands up- 
right. Now it is inclined 23J- degrees ; now 45 
degrees. Now it is turned down, one quarter of 
the way around, or 90 degrees. If it is turned 
entirely round, it makes the circuit of 360 degrees, 
thus. Teacher. How many can tell me how wide 
the torrid zones are? [All hands rise.] Teacliei'. 
Sarah. Sarah. Twenty-three and a half degrees. 
Teacher. How many agree with Sarah? [Some 
hands rise.] Look at the globe, and see if the tor- 
rid zones do not extend 23J^ degrees north, and 23J 
degrees south of the equator. 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 



207 



Thus, the teacher will reach the scholars' mis- 
taken notions, and chase them away, one after an- 
other; and he will find it necessary, to repeat the 
process, all along, or he inculcates more error than 
truth, even though he understands his subjects 
well, and exj)Iains them with clearness and accu- 
racy. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson for Keview, 
BY Topics. This review should extend over all the 
ground thus f\ir j^assed over. 

29. 

LESSON VIII. 

First Step — Recitation of Review Lesson. 

Second Step — Assigning an Advance Lesson, 
in divisions of land and water. 

Teacher. I have written out the topic lists, by 
which you can study and recite your next lesson. 

topic list for natural divisions of land. 

Volcano, 



I 

(-5 



Continent, 

Island, 

Peninsula, 

Isthmus, 

Cape, 

Mountain, 



I 



How situated? 

How surrounded? 

How situated? 

How surrounded? 

How situated? 

How surrounded? 

Connects what? 

Lies between what? 
I Projects from what? 
I Projects into what? 
^ Where situated? 
I Extending in what 

[direction? 



Hill, 
Valley, 
Desert, 
Shore, or 
Coast? 



Crater? 
Materials 
[thrown out? 



Teacher. In studying your lesson, by the topic 
list, you will learn the definitions of all the natural 
divisions, as continents, islands, etc.; then you may 
look out three such divisions, on your map, and 
describe them as the topic list requires. 

For instance, when you come to Isthmus, you 



208 GEOGRAPHY. 

will learn the definition as you find it in tlie book. 
Then you will find an isthmus on the map of the 
world, or any other map, and describe it, by telling 
what two bodies of land it connects, and what two 
bodies of water it lies between. Then find two 
more, and prepare yourselves to describe them, in 
the same way; and so of all the natural divisions 
of land. 

You may also, each one, prepare yourselves to 
draw, on the board, without any map before you, 
some continent, island, peninsula and cape ; so 
that the rest of the class can tell what division you 
have drawn. You will practice in drawing these 
on your slate. 

30. 

LESSON IX. 

First Step. The teacher will assign some kind 
of natural division of land, to each pupil, for draw- 
ing on the board. If the board is not large 
enough, some of the pupils may use slates. 

Second Step. While the class are thus engaged 
in drawing, the teacher will call on individuals, in 
succession, from his register, to recite their lesson 
from the topic list, the scholar having the topic list 
in hand, but using it as little as possible. 

Third Step. When all have thus recited, return- 
ing to their drawings, as they are excused, from 
the topic list, each drawing may be examined thus: 

Taking, for instance, the drawing of some one, 
who was required to draw an Island, the teacher 
Bays : How many can tell what island? As many 
as can, may raise the hand. [Hands rise.] Teach- 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 209 

cr. Mary. Mary. Madagascar. Teacher, flow 
many agree with Mary? [Hands rise.] How many 
disagree? [Hands rise.] Susan, what do you think 
it is? Susan. I do n't know; I don't think it is 
Madagascar. It runs East and West ; Madagascar 
runs North and South. Teacher. "Well, Henry, 
you drew this : what did you design it for? Henry. 
Cuba. Teacher. It is quite similar to Cuba, both 
in direction and shape. In this way, each drawing 
may be examined and criticised. « 

31. 

First Step — Writing Tone List. 



pi 

< 
O 

o 

t— I 

> 

I— I 

ft 

< 

E-i 

<! 

O 
H 



o 

1—1 

o 

EH 




210 GEOGRAPHY. 

You will pursue the same course, in preparing 
tliis lesson, witli these topics, as with those of yes- 
terday ; also, in drawing. 

32. 

LESSON X. 

First Step — Assigning Divisions of Water 
FOR Drawing. 

Second Step — Recitation. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. You will 
next take a lesson on the Map of North America. 
I wish you to practice, in drawing North America, 
so that you can draw the boundaries of all the 
countries in it, and locate the capitals. You need 
not draw the bodies of water any farther than they 
form boundaries. 

You may also prepare yourselves to give the 
boundaries of the countries, from the outline map, 
either before you have drawn them, or after you 
have drawn them ; also, to give the name of the 
capital of each country. 

33. 
lesson xi. 

First Step — Drawing the Map of North 
America, either on the board or on slates. 

Second Step — Recitation. While the class 
are generally engaged in drawing, individuals are 
called on, successively, to give the boundaries of 
North America, and each of the countries; also, 
the capital of each. 

Third Step — Assigning a Lesson. Teacher. 
For your next lesson, you may practice, in draw- 
ing the outline of North America, and the princi- 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 211 

pal islands, peninsulas, capes, and mountains; also 
prepare yourselves to describe them by the topic 
lists, I gave you, a few days since. How many 
have the topic lists? [Hands rise.] John, you 
have the topic lists ; you may write, on the board, 
the topic list for natural divisions of land. Su- 
san, you may write the topic list, for natural di- 
visions of water, on the board. Now, those who 
have lost them, can copy them, and then, I hope, 
they will copy them into their Topic Books. 



GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

FOR THE STUDY OF COUNTRIES, EMPIRES, KINGDOMS, AND 
STATES. 

Remark. I do not deem it advisable to confine 
scholars, for any lesson, exclusively to map studies, as 
is proposed in Monteith & McNally's Geography. 
I would make map-studies a part of every lesson, 
in connection with every country, empire, king- 
dom, or state. 

34. 

Direction I. — Map-Drawing. The practice of 
map-drawing, should be kept up, without inter- 
mission. Besides drawing on slates, and on black- 
board, pupils should be required, in order, one or 
more every day, ^o bring in a finished map, drawn 
on paper, not always, necessarily, of the country 
assigned for study of the class. These may be 
drawn, mathematically, and proportionally, larger 
or smaller than the map in the atlas or book, by 
drawing the marginal lines first, in proportion to 



212 GEOGRArHY. 

the marginal lines of the printed map, taking them 
one-half, two-thirds, or twice as large, or in any 
other proportion. Then the scholar will use divid- 
ers, and divide the marginal lines into as many 
equal parts as those of the printed map ; then draw 
the lines of latitude and longitude. If these lines 
are curved, he can bend a piece of whalebone or 
hickory, prepared for the purpose, by extending a 
string from end to end, to keep it bent in the 
proper curve. By loosening or tightening the 
string, the curve can be varied to meet the de- 
mands of any line, on any map. The lines having 
thus been drawn and numbered, with the degree of 
latitude or longitude, the paper is ready for com- 
mencing the map. 

By the use of these squares, thus formed by the 
lines of latitude and longitude, noticing the posi- 
tion of each point, and direction of each line, as to 
which square it is in, and which part of the square, 
and the proportional distance, in each correspond- 
ing square, a map can be drawn with correctness 
and beauty. The lines of latitude and longitude 
should be drawn in ink ; the boundaries, rivers, 
etc., should first be drawn with a pencil, afterwards 
with ink. 

35. 

Direction IT. — Preparation and Use of Topics. 
Scholars should, in the main, prepare their own 
topics, as they have only to copy them from the 
bold faced type, as Boundaries, Situation, etc. 
Such natural divisions of land and water may be 
added, as occur in the country assigned for a les- 



SECONDARY TEACHING. 213 

son. These may be proposed, or writteu on the 
blackboard, when the lesson is assigned, at first,' 
by the teacher. Soon, however, the scholar will 
be able to bring in these topics, without any direc- 
tion from the teacher. I think the writing of such 
topic lists, a valuable exercise for the pupil, and 
that he ought not to be deprived of it by using 
printed topics. The method of recitation, by top- 
ics, has already been fully described, and I will 
merely add, that scholars should be encouraged to 
recite, without looking at the topic list^ and with- 
out any prompting or questioning from the teacher. 

As has before been stated, a definite length of 
time should be assigned, for each pupil to use in 
reciting; and the more he can accomplish, in this 
time, and the better he can do it, the higher should 
his grade be, on the class register, for each recita- 
tion. 

Strict attention should be given to penmanship, 
in preparing topics and copying them into the 
Topic Book, for review lessons. Much care should 
be bestowed, on precision and propriety of lan- 
guage, in the recitatious. Such attention and 
care, are generally the most efi*ectual when given 
in the form of encouragement, rather than in the 
form of fault-finding. 

36. 

Direction III. — Review Lessons, Review les- 
sons should be assigned frequently. I prefer to 
give them, in connection with the divisions of the 
subject-matter, rather than to assign them periodi- 
cally, as many teachers do. In completing the 



214 



GEOGRAPHY. 



study of the States, on any map, for instance, 1 
would propose a review of those States ; so, in com- 
pleting the study of the Grand Divisions, I would 
have the whole reviewed, even if it should take 
several lessons to accomplish it. 

37. 

Direction TV. — Pronunciation. Scholars 
should be required to consult the pronouncing 
vocabulary, before they come to the recitation. If 
there should be none, in the Geography used, they 
should have access to some dictionary that contains 
one ; or, if this is not practicable, the teacher, at 
least, should have such a dictionary, or gazetteer, 
on his table : and no geographical name should be 
permitted to pass, without a definite and certain 
knowledge of its pronunciation. The teacher will 
do well, in case any doubt arises, to require some 
scholar to look out the word, during the time of 
recitation. 



METHOD OF TEACHING ADYANOED 

CLASSES. 

38. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSON. 

In commencing a term of school, it is desirable 
for the teacher to define the position that Geogra- 
phy holds in Science, in relation to other branches. 
This can be done by referring to Part I. The 
teacher should make an introductory exercise, as 
the scholars are not prepared for recitation, by 
presenting so much of the General Outline as is 
necessary for the purpose. It may be given thus: 

f^Mathematical, 
/-n v I Pbysical, 

f Geography, j phenomenal, 

r Literature, __ ^ Sinp'S'. [Descriptive. 



bO 



rOeotics. ^Mineralogy, 

' '- Chemistry, 



® o . I Mathemratic?, ! t> t„ ' ^ ' 

"5 i Sciences, \ TheraT)eutics botany, 

o I 1 berapeutics, ^ Zoology, 

c (^ Physics. ^ °'' 
^ (.Arts. 

Having written so much of the General Outline, 
he should present the definition of every term used, 
beginning with Knowledge. These definitions 
are found in Part I. But the teacher should not 
confine himself to bare definitions ; he should oc- 
cupy the whole time, allotted to this recitation, in 
such illustrations and exemplifications of these 
definitions, as will make them intelligible and in- 
teresting to his pupils. He will thus have deliv- 
10 (215) 



216 GEOGRAPHY. 

ered a systematic introductory lecture, and will 
have given his pupils an earnest of his ability to 
manage the class in a novel and interesting man- 
ner. 

The scholars should be requested to copy the 
outline so presented, in order that they may be 
able to report on it from- time to time, and that 
each may have an entire course of outlines, em- 
bracing the whole subject of Geography. The 
teacher will also assign a lesson for the next exer- 
cise ; state, if possible, at what time the class may 
expect to be called on for a recitation. As it is 
supposed that the class are already familiar with 
Geography, to a considerable extent, it is not de- 
sirable, perhaps, to fojlow the course of any text- 
book that may be used in l^ie class, but to follow 
the course marked out in the Outline of Geography, 
as present'ed below. The teacher will give as much 
of it, for successive lessons, as his class can well man- 
age. It will be seen, however, that a variety of text- 
books, in an advanced class, is no bar to its pro- 
gress, but decidedly a means of greater interest 
and improvement. There is no objection, however, 
to all the class having a book of the same kind; 
but all the class should be in possession of one or 
more besides the common text book. They should 
all have access to Physical Geooraphy, wliich may 
be found in the new edition of McNally's Geogra- 
phy ; also to some good system of Histories, as 
Willard's School Histories. 

Before proceeding further with the method of 
teaching advanced classes, it will be necessary to 
present the Outline of Geography. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



217 



39. 
I. Mathematical Geography. 



. r 



o 



of axis 

Form of 
Orbit 



Ellipse, 



I 2. 



o 



<M 



CD 

f3 



f Siin, 95 million miles, 
Distance j Moon, 240 thousand miles, 
from, I Other planets, variable, 

( Nearest fixed star, 40 trillion miles. 
Inclination of axis — 23-^ 28 min. 
Direction \ towards North Star, 
parallel with itself. 

major axis, 
minor axis, 
eccentricity. 
Circumnavigation. 
Appearance (if ship at sea, 
o. Shadow on the Moon, 
4. Ai)pearance of Polar Star, 
■{ 5. Appearance of Clouds in Horizon, 
0. Suspended weights, 

7. Force of Gravity, 

8. Analogy. 
Actual Measurement. 
Varying vibration of pendulum, 
Centrifugal Force, 
Analogy, 
^leasurement of descrees of latitude. 



Proofs that the 
Earth 
is globular. 



Proofs that the 
Earth is an ob- 
late spheroid. 



^9. 

1. 

2. 
j3. 

u. 






bii 

00 
m 

<X3 



> 

pi 



( Equatorial, 7924 miles, 
Diameter, 4 Polar, 7898 " 

I Mean, 7912 " 



I difference 
( 26 miles. 



I Circumference, 25.000 miles. 
[ Area, 197,000,000 square miles. 



Diurnal, 



'Velocity at Eqnator 1000 miles per hour, 
f Table turns under pendulum, 
I Falling body strikes east of ver- 
] Proofs, ■{ ticai 1 ne, 

I Neces-sary assumption in all as- 
l^ [ tronomical calculations, 

f Velocity, 68,000 miles per hour in orbit. 
■{ I ["Aberration of light, 

Annual, >{ p-Q^fg ) Change of Seasons, 

I I ' I Necessary assumption in all aa- 

i \ { tronomical calculations. 

I In common") f Velocity per hour 3.500 miles. 

with ! ) ( Approaching and receding of 

I solar j j Proof, < fixed stars in opposite parts of 
I, system. J [ ( the heavens. 



218 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Mathematical Geography — Concluded, 



r Points, 
5. \ Lines, 
1^ Divisions, 



1. Axis, 

2. Poles, 

3. Diameter, 

4. Circumference, 

5. Equator, 

6. Tropics, 

7. Polar Circles, 

8. Parallels of Latitude, 

9. Meridians of Longitude, 

10. Zones, 

11. Hemispheres, 

12. Horizon, \ ^^f.^'^^^' 
' / rational, 

[13. Colures. 

fl. Globe, 

I 2. Tellurian, 

6. Means of Representing, ^^3. ArmiUary sphere, 

I 5. Maps, 
1.6. Charts. 



40. 

II. Physical Geography. 

1. Structure and Materials. 



Geology, 



f Igneous Rocks, | 
> I Metamorphie > Inorganic, 

I Rocks, J 

\ \ ( Primary, 

Mineralogy, J Aqueous Rocks— Organic, i Tert^ry^^' 
I. [ Quaternary. 

Chemistry. 



I 



Temperature, 



2 . Temp eratur e . 

At the surface variable. 

Depth of invariable temperature, 

Increase of temperature downwards. 

3. Land. 



Extent, Proportion, Distribution, Analogies of Continents. 

1. Continent, 2. Island, 3. Peninsula, 
Divisions, ■{ 4. Isthmus, 5. Cape, 6. Promontory, 

7. Shore or Coast, 8. Banks, 9. Shoals. 



i 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



219 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



s 
JO 



1. Ranges, 

2. Systems, 
Mountain, { ^. Groups, 



Hill, 



Plain, 



Valley, 



5. Volcanoes, 
High, 



{Prairie, 
Selva, 
Pampa, 
Steppe, 
r Sandy, 
Barren, -< Salt, 

1^ Alkaline. 



f Directions, 
I Distribution, 
{ Analogies, 
f Slope, 
t Counter-Slope. 

Active, 

Intermittent, 

Extinct. 
Table Land, 
Plateau, 



Causes 
and 

Uses. 



4. "Water. 



Fresh, 

Salt, 

Mineral, 

Oceans 
and 

Seas. 

Lake, 



Soft, 

Hard, 

Ocean, 

Lake, 
r Acidulous, 
j Chalybeate, 
J Sulphurous, 
[ Saline, 



1 

f Localities, 

j Composition, 
) \ Weight, 

[Points of I ebullition, 

J 



congelation. 



Characteristics, 



Fresh, 
Salt, 



color, saltness, temperature, 
depth, quantity, level, 
extent, taste, motions, 
fl. with Inlets and Outlets, 
I 2. with Inlets and no Outlets, 
J 3. with Outlets and no Inlets, 
I 4. with neither Inlets nor Outlets, 

5. Subterranean, 
1.6. Periodical. 



220 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



r 



Gulf, 

Strait, 

Chnnncl, 

Sound, 



■> -^ River, 

Q I 

Estuary, 



Source, 
M.uth, 



in Mountains, 
in Lake.--, 
in Springs. 



Canal, 
Well, 



1. Extent, 

["stagnant, 
1 gf^ntie, 

2. Velocity of J ;j^p;;^,^ 

I C;it;iri)Ct3, 
1^ Ciisciides, 
riength, 

3. Magnitude, \ breadth, 

(depth, 
f extent, 

4. Drainage, ^ Water-Shed, , -j^j. 

[Basins or Bottoms, \ « j 

I Fluvial, 

5. Delta, < L;umstrine, 

( Maritime. 

6. Direction, f Ordinary, 

_ ^ .. j Subterr; nean, 

'• ■L''Jcality, < Qi^ elevations of their own form- 

I ( for what vessels, 

8. Uses, 1 Navigable, -^ 

( ( to what extent. 



5. Atmospliere. 

~ ... { essential, 

Composition, j ...i^ental. 

Color, 

Height, I how determined. 

f Torrid Zone, 
Temperature, | Limits on surface, in •< Temperate Zone, 

( Frigid Zone. 

( at surfnce, 
Weight, < at height of three miles, 

( ratio of diminution upward. 
Fluidity. 
Elasticity. 

Moisture, 



Limits of ratio to the atmosphere. 

Dew, Fogs, Clouds, Rain, Hail, Snow, Frost. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



221 



Physical Geography — Continued. 



Uses, 



Classes, 



Circumstances 
modifying, 



H 



Climate, < 



Isothermal 
Zones. 



Salubrity, 

v Natural, 
[ Artificial. 



( Continental or excessive, 

( Insular, 

f Latitude, 

I Height above the iSea, 

I Proximity to bodies of water, 

Slope of country, 

Position and direction o£ Moun- 
tain Chains, 
j Nature of Soil, 
I Degree of cultivation. 
I Prevalent winds, 
t Annual quantity of rain. 
f Torrid, ] 

[ Hot, I Boundaries, 

i Warm, I 

I Temperate, (How determined. 
I Cold, I 

t Frigid, J Productions. 



Causes 
modifying, 



fTem] 
Soil, 



perature, 



-Moisture, 



i. Cultivation. 



6. Productions. 





. 




6 


w 


~ 


a 




^\ 


•S! 1 


c 


(^ 


lei 


C 


f=\ 


o 




^ 




^ 







Non-combusti- 
ble, 



4 I Coal, 



3 ^ Naphtha, } 
'2 Petroleum, ) 
o I Sulphur, 
^ t Amber. 



f Air, 
I Water, 

I Building materials, 
■{ Stntuary " 
i Ornamental " 
I Drug. « 

L Chemical " 
Anthracite, 
Bituminous, 
Cannel, 

•J Liquids, 



'Distribution, 



M 



Abundance, 



Locality, 



J I Uses. 



222 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Physical Geography — Contmued. 



] 



i '3 -! 



Noble, 



Intermediate, 



Base, 



Cryptogamous, 



r Gold, 
J Platina, ( 
1 Silver, f 
(^Mercury, | 

J 
] Aluminum, 

' Iron. 

Copper, 

Lead, 

Tin, 

Zinc, 

Cobalt, 

Arsenicum, 

Antimony, 
[ Bismuth, 

Mosses, 

Lichens, 

I'ungi, 

Ferns, 

Sea-weed, 

f Palms, 
I Grasses, 

Endogens, -j Cereals, 
Lilies, 



C Manner of deposition. 

Distribution, 

Abundance, 

Localities, 

Comparative value, 
i^Uaes, 

) ( Deposition, properties, 
] value, uses, abundance. 



f 

C Manner of deposition, 

Distribution, 
J Abundance, 
j Localities, 

Comparative value, 
[ Uses. 



JH 1 



^ Canes, etc. 



CQ 
< 
E-i 



Phenogamous, « 



Exogens, - 



Fruits, 



f Apple, 
I Pear, 
\ Peach, 
1 Orange, 
I Grape, 
etc. 



Forest Trees, 
Banian, etc. 



a 
° < 

N 1 



:2 1 



IS 



Torrid 
Flora, 

Temperate 
Flora, 



Frigid 
Flora, 

Vertical, 



Description, 
Most important 

plants. 
Description, 
Most important 

plants, 
Description, 
Most important 

plants, 
Arrangement of 
plants on 

Mountains. 



fFood plants, 
I Spices, 
\ Narcotics, 
I Dyes, 
l^ Ornamental. 

Trees, 
Mosses, 
Lichens, 
Plants of 
the several 
Zones. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



223 



Physical Geography — Concluded. 






u 



r- 



i \ 



> 



'Homo — man. 

Quadrumana — monkey, ape, etc., 
Carnivora— lion, bear, cat, dog, 
etc, 

I Marsupalia — opossum, kangaroo. 
I Rodentata — beaver, squirrel, rat, 
Mammalia, \ etc. 

Edentata — sloth, armadillo, etc. 
Pachydermata — elephant, horse, 

hog, etc. 
Ruminata — camel, ox, sheep, etc. 
Whale, 
Dolphin. 



2. Birds, 
Reptil 
Fishes. 



I 3. Reptiles, 

U. " 



4. Radiated, 

r 



Marine, 

Oyster, 

^1 2. Moleuscous, -( Snail, 

Mussel. 

Insects, 

3. Articulated, \ Worms, 

Lobsters and Crabs. 

Coral, 

Zoophyte. 

General description — pe- 
culiar animals of each 
grand division. 
General description of an- 
imals common and pecu- 
liar to each division. 
General description of an- 
y -^ imals common and peculiar 
' ( to each grand division. 
Arrangement of animals 
L * erucm, I ^^ mountains. 



Torrid 
Fauna. 



Horizont^U Temperate 



Frigid 
Fauna, 



Vertical, 



10^ 



224 



GEOGRAPHY. 



10. 
11. 



41. 

III. Phenomenal Geography. 

1. Astronomical Phenomena. 

Day and night— variation in length of day and night. 

Change of Sun's declination. 

Rising and setting of the Sun north of east and west, in 

Summer. 
Where on the Earth's surface do the days begin? 
Difference of time. 

No absolute up and down, east or west. 
Change of Seasons. 
Appearance of the Sun in the frigid zones. 

Eclipses, lltl'. 
Changes of the Moon. 
Precession of Equinoxes. 

Shooting Stars, 

Falling Stars. 



12. Meteors, 



1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 



2. Terrestrial Phenomena. 

Formation and structure of the Earth. 

■r . 1 u f \ Depth of invariable temperature. 

internal neat, | j^.^^j^ ^^ increase downwards. 

Elevation of Mountains. 
Elevation and subsidence of Continents. 
Elevation and subsidence of Islands. 
Volcanoes — Causes of Eruptions. 
Earthquakes— Causes, Movements and Effects. 



1 



> 



J 



explanation, 



uses. 



f Perpetual, 
I Intermittent, 
I Periodical. 

8. Springs, ■{ Artesian Wells, 

Salt Springs, 

I Hot Springs, 

[ Fire Springs, 
f Origin, 
I Formation of channels, 
I Formation of bottoms, 

9. Rivers, ■{ Formation of oxbows, bayous, and islands. 

Formation of deltas, 
I Elevation of bed above surroundiug country, 
[Running up hill. 



10. Caves, 



Motintair, 
Subterranean, 



r Causes, 
I Stalactites, 
J Stalagmites, 
] Gases, 
I Rivers, 
t Lakes. 









"n 






ADVANCED TEACHING. 225 






Phenomenal Geography — Contimied, 






11. 


Natural Bridges, j ^^^t^'remarkable. 
( cause. 






12. 


Causeways, j j shape, 
( ' ( size. 

3. Oceanic Phenomena. 






1. 


Saltness, Causes, Limits of percentage. 






2. 


Temper:. ture, in Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid Zones; in 
currents. 






3. 


Depth, Deepest Sounding, Method of Sounding. 






4. 


Density, at surface, at depth of a mile. 






5. 


Level, 


Variation, Apparent \ elevation of land. 






Variation, i I depression of land. 










' 


' Cause, 
Height— "Billows mountain high"? 










TO 


Force, 










!> < 


Direction, 












Rate of travel, 










The Bore, 












^ Uses. 












'Causes, 










Eh 


Tide opposite the Moon, 

Direction and rate of travel, 

Later daily recurrence, 

Tides in rivers — many at the same time, 

Spring and neap tides. 

What six concurring circumstances will give 

the highest tide? 
Extraordinary local tides — causes. 






6. ] 


Motions, ' 




.Use 


3. 

' Antarctic drift, 
Pacific equatorial, 
Indian " 
Atlantic " 
South Atlantic, 


f causes, 
extent. 










M 


.^^" 


Brazil, 


direction, 










a 


a 1 


South connecting. 
Cape, 


^ . force, 
' j tempera- 










3 


o 


Gulf Stream, j |- ^^^^^^ 

Arctic, ]E^ branch, 

Japan, 
Grassy Sea, 


ture, 
color, 
I. effects. 














Counter, j ( means of determining, 
. Under, j 1 effects, 




1 






' 


. 











226 



GEOGRAPPIY. 



Phenomenal Geography — Continued. 



6. Periodical Currents, 



7. Coral, -{ 



fof Red Sea, 1 

' of Persian Gulf, ( ( causes, 

of India Ocean, j ( effects. 

of Ciiina Sea, J 

{No. of genera and species, 
description, 
habits. 
TReef, 

Classes, I J^""'^"'^' 

* 'l lirain. 

{ Organ pipe, etc. 

habitable part,'] f causes, 

lagoon, I shape, 

encircling, > -j localities, 

barrier, | uses, 

fringing, J 1^ dangers. 

how formed, 

how forming. 



Atolse, 



S i Reefs, 
Chalk beds. 



1. Weight, 



4. Atmospheric Phenomena. 

( cause, methods of determining, rate of diminu 
I tion upwards, effects, ft)rce. 



f preserves liquidity of water, 
I prevents vacuums, 
I raises water in pump and si* 
■{ photi, 

I raises mercury in barometer, 
I combination with witer to 
(^ maintain life of fish. 

f flying of birds, 
) difference of descent, 
**, retarding velocity of railroad 
[ cars. 

Temperature — cause of variation, rate of diminution upward. 
Boiling point of water — variation upward and downward. 



2. Pressure, 



3. Resistance, 



4. 
5. 



cause, 
illustrations, 

effects, 



cause, 

illustrations, 

effects. 



J 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



227 



Phenomenal Geography— Continued. 



r 



Causes, 



Heaf, 

Electricity, 

lievolution of the Earth, 



operations of each. 



( Telocity and ) \ rt ^i t. • , t^. \^ 

! " " i i Gentle, Brisk, High, Violent, Hurricane. 



force of, 
I Direction, 

r 






Constant 
or Trade, 



I means of determining, 
) upper and lower currents, 
f explanation, 

i equatorial, 
tropical, ! "«^tberr 
^ ' \ southern. 

I Limits, 
t Uses. 

Land and Sea breeze?, 



j North and South, 
] East and West. 



Periodical, ■{ ,, 

' \ Monsoons, 

Etesians, 



i localities, 



^ 'i 



Northers, 



Variable, \ 



{ localities, 
I explanations, 

{ Simoom, 



explanations, 
periods. 

localities, 

explanations, 

extent, 

periods. 



Local, 



Whirlwinds 
Hurricanes, 
Tirnadoes, 
Typhoons, 



[ Rh.misin, 
J Harmattan, 
I Sirocco, 
I Pamperos, 
t Bora. 



localities, 
explanation, 
chitf periods. 



I 



i locality, 
Water Spouts, < explanution, 

{ attending j)henomena. 
'Former ignorance in relation to. 
Late improvements. 
Navigation, ^ ( ^^^J^ Europe to America, 

I Gen'l principles, \ " ^. S. to Europe, 
j i JN. 1. to J^rancisco, 

I ^ " U.S. to China. 



228 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Phenomenal Geography — Continued, 



Evaporation, 



proofs, 
extent, 

average annual 
from sq. rod, 



( Temperate Zone, 
\ Torrid Zone. 



Dew, 



r explanation, 

! T^ . , ( depending on what? 

Dew point, J ^^^ determined^ 

J Dew at midday — "pitcher sweats," 
] circumstances favoring, \ 

circumstances preventing, ) 

Frozen — frost, 
[ uses? 



explanation, 



(explanation, 
condition of moisture, 
localities of dense fogs, 
periods of fogs. 



f explanation- 
I height. 



-how differ. 



Clouds, ^Classes, 



1^ uses, 

f explanation. 



Cirrus, 
Cumulus, 
Stratus, 
Nimbus, 



description of each. 



Rain, 



S.< 



General principles, \ 



Regions, 



Rainless, 
Periodical rains, 
Frequent rains, 



' from equator to poles, 
from sea to interior, 
on east and west shores 
in Tropics, 
in Temperate Zone, 

^ in Frigid Zone. 



where. 



Snow, 



explanation, 
snow crystals, 
J extent superficially, 

iin Torrid Zone, 
in Temperate Zone, 
in Frigid Zone. 

f explanation, 
character and appearance of icOf 



Glaciers, ^'^^ff'> 
' extent. 



'i motions, 
t effects. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



229 



Phenomenal G eography — Concluded.. 



Avalanches, 



Icebergs, \ 



2 S 



explanations, 

localities, 

effects. 

explanation, 

dimensions, 

proportion above water, 

localities, 

exient, ( cool southern climate. 



(_ effects. 



[sea, 



distribute rocks over bottom of 
boulders on present continents, 



Hail, 



explanation, 
dimensious 
localities, 
effects. 



lY. — Electrical Phenomena. 



'Explanation, 



1. 



Thunder and 
Lightning. 



Classes, 



i 



Protection, 



Zigzag, 
Sheet, 
Globular, 
Heat. 

r 

j Rods, 



inventor, 

exte nt of protection, 
best materials, 
best arrangement. 

'^Localities to be avoided. 

-when most abundant. 



2. ilariner's Light. 

3. Aurora Borealis. 



Localities, 

explanation, 

localities. 

explanation, 

appearance, 

localities. 

V. — Optical Phenomena. 

! explanation of 

) I < solar, 

, ■{ classes, ' ' 



limits, 



primary, 
secondary. 



Rainbow, -^ v^iaoo^o, j lunar 

in time, 
in place. 
TT , r^ ( explanation, 

Halos Corona, j i^ijeation. ' 

Mock Sun, ) J exfilanation. 
Mock Moons. ) \ localities. 

( explanation, 
Mirage. < localities, 

( effects. 



4 
5 
6. Ignis fatuus. 



_ ^. . . . ( explanation. 

Inverting images in air. j j ^^^^^3^ 

explanation, 

localities, 

effects. 



230 



GEOGRAPHY. 



VI. — Political Geography. 

Government. 



1. Patriarchal. 



2. Absolute 
Monarchy. 



r Political divisions, 

Chief officer, 
Subord'te officers, 

f Political Divisions, 

Chief Officer, 
Subord. Officers, 



3. Limited 
Monarchy. 



Branches of Gov- 
ernment, 

Political Divisions, 

Chief Officer, 



4. Aristocracy. ^ 



Coordinate branches ) 
of Government, ) 

'Political divisions, 

Chief Officer, 



5. Republic. ■{ 



I Coordinate branches 
of Government, 

'Political divisions, i 

Chief Officer, { 

Subord. Officers, J 



Coordinate branches ) 
of Government, i 



term of service, 

how appointed, 

extent of power. 

Empire, Kingdom. 

time of service, 

how appointed, 

extent of power. 

how established. 

extent of jurisdiction, 

officers, how app'ted. 

Empire, Kingdom. 
( how appointed, 
] extent of power. 
I how established, 
< extent of jurisdiction, 
( officers, how app'ted. 



how appointed, 
extent of power, 
how established, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 
State, Duchy. 
( time of service, 
^ how appointed, 
( extent of power, 
how established, 
extent of jurisdiction, 
officers, how app'ted. 



1. Caucasian, • 

2. Mongolian, 

3. Malay, 

4. American, 

5. African. 



Races. 

f Color,— skin, hair, eyes, - , , 

_, ( eyes, nose, cheekbones, forenead, 

Features, } ^^^^^^^ ^j^g^ ^^lin, hair. 

Nations included, 
Number estimated, 
Distinguishing characteristics, 
Government, 
Languages, 
Civilization, 
^Religion. 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



231 



Political Geography. — Continued . 



1. 



2. 



Classes, as 
to manner of 
living. 

Classes, as 
to social con- 
dition. 



State of Society. 



Roving Tribes, 
Nomadic Tribes, 
Fixed Nations, 

Enlightened, 
Civilized, 
Half Civilized, 
Savage, 



( mode of subsistence, 
\ mode of habitation, 

f Attainments in Arts and 

Sciences, 
J Systems of Education, 
1 Political power, 

Religion, 
L Humane institutions. 



Religion. 



I 1- 
4. 



Roman Catholic, 
Greek Church, 
Protestant, 
Nestorians, 



Officers, 
Books of 
Worship, 



f Founders, 
Ecclesiastical system, 

how appointed, 
extent of power. 
Books of authority, 
I objects, 
I modes, 
Sects, 
Number, 
, Embraced in what nations. 



Officers, 



2, Jews. > 



3. Mahometans, -i 



'Founders, 

Ecclesiastical System, 

how tippoioted, 

extent of power. 

Books of authority, 

wT u- \ objects. 
Worship, 1 • , ' 
^' j modes. 

Sects, 

Number, 

, Scattered through what nations? 

Founder, 

Ecclesiastical System, 

how appointed, 

extent of power. 

Books of authority. 



Officers, 



Worship, { '^:; 



Sects, 
Number, 

^Embraced by what nations? 
'Books of authority, 

-rr-r ,. ( objCCtS, 

Worship, J^' 

Pagans, j ejects, 

I Number, 

I. Embraced by what nations? 



232 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Political Geography — Continued. 



^ , Clothing, 



< 



Animals for Labor, 
Fuel, 



Raw, 



Wrought, 



Artificial Productions. 

r I Beef, I ( Butter, 

] Animal, -< Mutton,)- •< Lard, 
^ , I ( Pork, ) { Tallow, etc. [Rye, etc. 

^^^'^' \ Cereals— Wheat, Corn, Oats, Barley, 

I Vegetable, •< Fruits — Ajiple, Peach, Pear, etc. 
[ ( Roots— Potatoe, Beet, Turnip, etc. 

Animal — Wool, Hair, Silk, Skins, etc. 
Vegetable— Linen, Cotton, etc. 

Horse, Mule, Ox, Camel, 
Reindeer, Dog, etc. 
Animal — Tallow, Lard. 
Vegetable— Wood, Charcoal. 
1 I Cordage — Hemp, etc. [mint, etc. 

[ Miscellaneous, < Medicines — Castor Bean, Oil of Pepper- 
i(_ ( Dyes — Madder, Indigo, etc. 

f Ores and precious stones 
I Clay and Sand, 
J Stone, 
J Timber, 

Ivory, 
t Horn, etc. 
r Metals, 

Hewed Stone, 
j Lumber, 
] Brick, 

Yarn and Cloth, 
[ Leather, etc. 
{ Machinery, 
I Cutlery, 
I Crockery, 
I Houses, 
I Furniture, 
\ Clothing, 
I Shoes, 
j Hats, 

I Clocks, ( Diamond, 

I Ornaments, -< Agate, 
L ( Opal, etc. 

Fish, Game, etc. 

I Coal — Bituminous, Anthracite, 
I Oil. 

Condiments, ) S"^^'"' JT/ ^"°^'' 
' \ Spices, Salt. 

Miscellaneous. •{ r)„ „_ S Mineral— Calomel, etc. 

° * ( Vegetable — Strychnine, etc. 

Perfumes, 

Paints, 

Dyes, 

^ Poisons — Corrosive Sublimate, Arsenic, etc. 



Maaufactured. { 



Finished, 



"Food- 
Fuel, 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 



233 



Political Geography — Continued. 
Employments. 

I Farmer, Gardener, Fruit Grower, etc. 
Agriculture. 4 Grazier, Shepherd, Drover, Butcher, etc. 

( Teamster, Chopper, Sawyer, etc. 
Fishery. Whaleman, Codfisher, Oysterman, etc. 

( iliner, Quarryman, Lumberman, Trapper, 

] Mechanics. 

i Importers, 
Merchants, < Jubbers, 
( Retailers, 
f Sailors, 
\ I Bcatmen, 

Transporters I Railroadmen, 

^ ' I Stage owners and drivers, 

i Teamsters and Draymen, 

I, Stevedores. 



Manufactures. 



Commerce. 



Artists. 



Professions. 



I 

f Architects, 
I Designers, 
I Musicians, 
•{ Painters, 
I Sculptors, 
I Engravers, 
[Daguerreans. 

Teachers, 
isters, 
/sicians, 

Lawyers, 



. Teach 
J Minis 
1 Physi 



Ancient 
Countries. 



Modern 
Countries. 



History. 

\ gi"SS, I dates. 
/ \> ars, ) 
f over what countries, 

under what kings and generals, 

under what king, 

by what nation and king subdued. 

by whom effected, 

causes of decay, 

effects on civilization and religion, 
fdate, 
I locality, 

I number of men engaged on each side, 
\ generals, 
I causes, 
I number slain on each side, 
(^ consequences. 
Extent of \ over what countries, 
^Conquests, ] under what kings and generals. 



Dynasties, 

Extent of 
Conquests, 

Decline 
and Fall, 
Change of 
Govern- 
ments, 



Battles, 



234 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Political Geography — Concluded. 
Education. 

1. Diffusion and extent of ( among the common people, 

Knowledge, I among higher classes. 

(Public, (by whom established, 

2. Libraries, •< -| number of volumes, 

(Private, (conditions of use. 






f Universities, 
Public, I Normal Schools, 

or \ High Schools, 
Free, | Common \ classified 

(^ Schools, ( unclassified 

rUniversities, ' 



I I 
J I 



Number of Teaeners, 
Number of Pupils, 



Private 

or 
Pay. 



J Normal Schools, 
I High Schools, 
1^ Grammar Schools, 



Chairs, 
amotints. 



endowed, 

charges. 

Number of Teachers, 
t Number of Pupils. 



Literature, 



Sciences, 



Literatiire, Sciences, and Arts. 

' what form the most generally ") Historical? 

cultivated? (Periodical? 

what form the most highly (Poetical? 

cultivated? J Metaphorical? 

, ^. , 1 ( names? 
most noted works, j^^^j^^^g, 

what the most generally understood? 
"! what the most highly cultivated? 

I character? 
most noted discoveries? < discoveries? 

( consequences? 
i, what the most generally cultivated? 
what the most highly cultivated? 
most noted inventions? ) i character? 
>- •< inventors? 
t most noted works? ) ( consequences? 

Miscellaneous. 

Natural Curiosities, Artificial Curiosities, Places and objects 
of Interef?t, Distinguished Persons, Manners and Customs, Lan- 
guages, Traveling Facilities, etc., etc. 



Arts, 















ADVANCED TEACHING. 235 






43. 








Descriptive Gteography. 








1. Boundaries, 








2. Latitude and Longitude, 








3. Surface, 








4. Mountains, 








5. Volcanoes, 








6. Plains, 








7. Islands, 








8. Peninsula, 








9. Capes, 








10. Isthmus, 








11. Bodies of "Water, 








12. Rivers, 








13. IS'oted Springs, 








14. Climate, 








15. Isothermal Line, 








16. Soil, 








17. Natural Currents, 








18. Natural Productions, 








19.. Square Miles, 








20. Population, 








21. Race, 








22. State of Society, 








23. Capital, 








24. Chief Towns, 








25. Employments, 








26. Facilities for Traveling, 








27. Agricultural Productions, 








28. Manufactured Productions. 








f Slaves, 








29. Miscellaneous Productions, I Emigrants, 

' ] Fish, 








(.Tar, etc. 








30. Religion, 








31. Education, 








32. Morality, 








33. Manners and Customs, 








34. Languages, 








35. History. 








36. Literature, Arts and Sciences. 








^ 



236 GEOGRAPHY. 

44. 

SUCCEEDING LESSONS. 

The class will pursue this course of Outlines, in 
successive lessons, with frequent reviews, till it 
shall have been mastered. 

Then they will commence Descriptive Geography, 
taking one or two Political divisions for a lesson, 
using the Topic List on page 235, in the prepara- 
tion and recitation of their lessons. 

The Teacher of an ungraded or country school, 
can make a division of the class, according to the 
ability of the scholars, by assigning the whole 
Topic List, as a guide for the lesson of the most 
advanced scholars, and only such topics as are 
found in the text-book used, to scholars less ad- 
vanced. These two divisions may recite as one 
class. 

The general plan of managing the recitation of 
an advanced class, is the same as for a secondary 
class, the difference being in the greater range of 
topics examined, and in the greater amount of 
time allowed each scholar for a recitation. 



USE OF APPARAT US. 

45. 

The remaining pages of Part TV. will be given 
to the description and use of the Globe and Tellu- 
rian, and their use in the explanation of Astro- 
nomical Phenomena. The matter was originally 
written by me, several years since, for a text-book, 
to accompany Holbrook's School Apparatus. Most 
of it was transferred to the Teacher's Guide to 
Illustration, a work prepared by F. C. Brownell, 
for a similar purpose, and published in Hartford, 
Ct., 1857. That is a valuable work, and should be 
in the hands of every teacher. 




TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. 



(237) 



238 



GEOGRAPHY. 



46. 

A Globe should invariably precede the use of 
maps, to avoid the erroneous impression, with chil- 
dren, that the earth is flat; and the Hemisphere 
Globe may be used in connection with the Hemis- 
phere Map. 

For several reasons, a five-inch globe is prefera- 
ble, in a common school, to one of any other size. 

"While it shows the spherical form as well as any 
other, and is large enough to give a distinct view 
of the principal divisions of land and water to all 
the members of any ordinary class in Geography, 
it is not so large but that it can be held in the 
hand conveniently for familiar illustration; nor is 
it so large but that it can be made of solid, firm 
material, without too much increase of weight, 
which secures it against destruction in case of a 
fall. 

Again, anything that is desirable to be taught 
by the use of a globe to an ordinary Geography 
class, can be taught better with a small globe, ele- 
vated on a simple pedestal, or suspended by a cord, 
than by a large globe, costing ten or twenty times 
as much, surrounded and encumbered by a frame 
work, horizon and meridian, as such globes usually 
are. 

The fact, that where both a large and a small 
globe are in possession of teachers, the former is 
shoived to visitors, and the latter tised to instruct 
schohirs, is a sufficient indication of the compara- 
tive utility of the two. 

But an outline globe is preferable, in primary in 



USE OF APPARATUS. 239 

struction, to one so mucli crowded with names as 
to render tlie forms of seas and continents obscure 
and incorrect. The details of particular countries 
are studied better on maps than on globes. If the 
minutias of Geography should be studied on globes, 
then ought globes to be large enough to embrace 
the details of countries and towns, which, of course, 
is impossible within any ordinary limits of expense. 

47. 

APPLICATIONS. 
I. — THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 

That the earth is spherical, appears from the 
following proofs and illustrations: 

Proof 1st. The earth has been traveled around. 

Illustration. As a fly crawling around the 
globe, in any continuous direction, comes back to 
the starting point, so travelers have passed around 
the earth, in nearly all directions, and returned to 
their homes. 

Proof 2d. The shadow of the earth on the 
moon is always circular. 

Illustration. The globe always casts a circular 
shadow, whereas no other body, in all positions, 
will do so. Try a cylinder, a cone, oblate and 
prolate spheroids, and then the globe. 

Proof 3cZ. The upper part of an approaching 
object is seen first, as a ship at sea. 

Illustration. Insert a pin into the globe, and 
turn the globe. The outer extremity is first seen, 
when approaching, and disappears last when reced- 



11 



240 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Proof 4:ih. A horizontal line diverges from any 
horizontal plane surface. The divergence is eight 
inches for the first mile, thirty-two for two miles, 
six feet for three miles, and so on. 

Illustration. Apply a straight edge to the glohe, 
and it is seen to coincide with it but a short dis- 
tance. 

Proof ^th. Vertical lines, at any considerable 
distance from each other, are not parallel, but di- 
verge toward difierent parts of the heavens. 

Illustration. Insert two or more pins, perpen- 
dicularly to the surface of the globe, at some dis • 
tance from each other, and they are seen to diverge 
outward and to converge toward the center, i. <?., are 
not parallel to each other, as they would be, if in- 
serted perpendicularly into a plane surface. 

Proof 6th. The North Star rises as we travel 
north, and declines as we go south, till we reach 
the equator, when it disappears. 

Illustration. The globe being on a stand, let the 
north pole be directed toward any small object, as 
a nail in the ceiling. If that nail represent the 
north star, and a short pin a traveler, and the pin 
be moved from the pole toward the equator and 
across it, then will it appear that the globe will in- 
tercept the line of vision from the traveler to the 
star soon after crossing the equator. 

Proof 7th. Analogy. 

Remarh. As all other bodies in the heavens are 
spherical, except Comets and Saturn's rings, it is 
reasonable to conclude, that the earth is likewise a 
sphere. 



USE OF APPARATUS. 241 

Proof Sth. Were tlie earth ever a fluid, (and 
there is sufficient evidence to show this to be a 
fact,) the force of gravity would have compelled 
it to take the form of a sj)here. 

48. 

THE EARTH A SPHEROID. 

That the earth is not a perfect sphere, but a 
spheroid, having the polar diameter shorter than 
the equatorial, appears from the following proofs : 

Proof 1st. A pendulum vibrates more rapidly 
as it is carried from the equator toward either pole. 

Remark, The frequency of the vibrations of a 
pendulum depends upon the force of gravity, and 
gravity varies as the squares of the distances from 
the center of the earth vary inversely. Since, 
then, a pendulum vibrates more rapidly near the 
pole than near the equator, it is inferred that the 
surface at the pole is nearer the earth's center 
than at the equator. 

Proof 2nd. A degree of latitude, on the earth's 
surface, as indicated by the stars, is longer near the 
poles than near the equator, showing that the 
surface is there flattened. 

Remark. By accurate measurement of degrees 
in the torrid and frigid zones, the polar diameter is 
found to be twenty-six miles shorter than the 
equatorial diameter, or as 301 to 302. 

Proof 3c7. Were the earth ever in a fluid state, 
the centrifugal force, arising from its revolution on 
its axis, would compel it to assume the form of an 
oblate spheroid. 



242 GEOGRAPHY. 

49. 
II. MATHEMATICAL LINES AND DIVISIONS. 

1. Diameter. Any straight line extending 
through the center of the earth from surface to 
surface. 

2. Circumference. Any circle on the earth's 
surface which has the same diameter as the earth. 

3. Axis. That diameter about which the earth 
revolves. (^Poles. The extremities of the axis.) 

4. Great Circle . Any circle which divides the 
earth's surface into two equal parts. 

5. Small Circle. Any circle which divides the 
earth's surface into two unequal parts. 

6. Equator. The great circle, equally distant 
from the poles. 

7. Tropics. Two small circles^ 23J- degrees from 
the equator. 

8. Polar Circles. Two small circles^ 23|^ degrees 
from the poles. 

9. Meridians. Great circles passing through 
the poles and the equator. 

10. Parallels of Latitude. Small circles parallel 
to the equator, either north or south of it. 

11. Zone. A belt or girdle surrounding the 
earth. 

Torrid Zone. That portion of the earth's sur- 
face between the tropics. 

Temperate Zones. The two belts between the 
tropics and polar circles. 

Frigid Zones. Those portions of the earth's 
surface included by the two polar circles. 

Hemispheres. Any two equal divisions of the 



r — 

USE OF APPARATUS. 243 

earth; as, nortlierii and soutliern, eastern and 
western. 

Remark. All mathematical lines and divisions 
are imaginary. 

llhistration. By the use of the globe, on which 
the imaginary circles are drawn, the other lines and 
divisions can he clearly pointed out and explained. 

50. 

III. MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

The two most important motions of the earth, 
are the Diurnal Motion, or that around its axis; 
and the Annual Motion, or that in its orbit around 
the sun. 

Illustration^ 1. With the Globe on the stand, 
make it revolve on the inclination wire or axis. 
This will represent the diurnal motion. If at the 
same time, the globe is carried around any object 
representing the sun, it will illustrate the annual 
motion. 

Illustration, 2. The better method of combining 
these motions is to suspend the Globe by a cord 
attached to a nail in the ceiling. By this means, 
the elliptical form of the orbit may be shown, as 
the two motions combined. 

51. 

IV. THE RELATIVE POSITION OF PLACES. 

The true relative position of places is not shown 
on maps, except in comparatively small areas; and 
the globe should be in the hand of the teacher 
of Geography at every recitation, in order that the 
scholars may obtain the true direction and approxi- 



244 



GEOGRAPHY. 



mate distance of every County, State, or Town, 
from their place of residence and from eacli other. 

Remark. It will be seen by the globe that any 
place, as San Francisco, may be said to be in three 
directions from any other place, as London. San 
Francisco can be reached by traveling in a con- 
tinuous line on the earth's surface, either S. W. or 
N, E., or by electricity, in a straight line througli 
the earth. Asia is both east and west of Ameri- 
ca, likewise on the opposite side of the earth. 

From the relative position of places on the 
earth's surface, the inhabitants receive different rel- 
ative appellations. 

Antijjodes, are those living diametrically opposite. 
They have opposite seasons, and opposite days and 
nights. 

Antceci are those living under the same meridian, 
but on opposite parallels of latitude. They have 
opposite seasons, but the same days and nights, 
though the days of one arc always equal to the 
nights of the other, disregarding atmospheric re- 
fraction of light. 

Periccci are those living on the same parallel of 
latitude, but under opposite meridians. They 
have the same seasons, but opposite days and 
nights ; i. e., when it is noon with one, it is mid- 



night with the other. 



52. 



V. NO ABSOLUTE UP AND DOWN. 

Remark. Up and down are merely relative terms, 
used in connection with direction to or from the 
earth's center. With respect to the stars or space 



USE OF APPARATUS. 245 

at large, that direction which we call up at midday 
is down at midnight. And at any time, that direc- 
tion which is up to any person on one side of the 
earth, is down to any person on the other side. 

Illustration^ 1. Insert a pin into the globe and 
turn the globe on its axis. It will be seen that the 
direction which would be called up by a person 
similarly situated on the earth is constantly chang- 
ing. 

Illustration^ 2. Insert two pins at antipodes, as 
in America and Asia. It will be seen that the 
heads point in opposite directions, i. e., the direc- 
tion which is up to one is down to the other. 

53. 

VI. PHENOMENA. 
SUCCESSION OF DAY AND NIGHT. 

Day and night are caused by the revolution of 
the earth on its axis, bringing any place between 
the two polar circles once in the light of the sun 
at each revolution. 

Illustration, 1. In a darkened room, having in 
it only one lighted candle, it will be seen that one- 
half the surface of the globe is illuminated and the 
other half is in shade. Insert a pin at your place 
of residence, and turn the globe on its axis. It 
will come round alternately into light and shade, 
or into day and night. 

Illustration^ 2. By daylight, a window or any 
other object may be taken for the sun, and the 
imagination can picture the illumined hemisphere 
on the side toward the sun ; or the large ball of a 
lunarian can be used in connection with the globe. 



246 GEOGRAPHY. 

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

The change of seasons is produced by the incli- 
nation of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, 
as shown by the inclination of the axis of the globe. 

Illustration. The change of the seasons may be 
shown by carrying the globe, with the axis contin- 
ually directed toward the north, about any object 
assumed as a sun. 

54. 

TRADE WINDS. 

The trade winds are caused by the revolution of 
the earth on its axis from west to east, in connection 
with the current of air flowing toward the equato- 
rial region, to supply those portions of space from 
which the air rises by the action of the sun's heat. 

Illustration. (With the globe in hand.) It is 
supposed that the Sun is shining directly on the 
equator. Those parts of the earth's surface about 
the equator, being much heated, rarefy the air in 
contact with them. The air thus rarefied rises; 
other air from the north and south, within and be 
yond the tropics, flows in to supply the place of the 
air so elevated. But as, the atmosphere partakes of 
the motion of that part of the earth's surface with 
which it is in contact, and as the surface at the 
tropics and beyond them does not move as rapidly 
from west to east as at the equator, since those cir- 
cles are smaller than the equator, it is plain that if 
air, with the eastward motion of the tropics, say 
900 miles an hour, were instantaneously trans- 
ported to the equator, where the eastward motion 
of the earth's surface is 1000 miles an hour, the 



USE OF APPARATUS. 247 

air so transported would have a relative backward 
or westward motion of 100 miles an hour. But as 
it is not transported instantaneously, but flows with 
a moderate velocity, its westward motion, though 
considerable, is not so great. It must be remem- 
bered, that the motion toward the equator is com- 
bined with the backward or westward motion, giv- 
ing the trade winds a southv/esterly direction north 
of the sun, and a northwesterly direction south of 
the sun. Where the two currents would meet, 
which is always a few degrees behind the sun, in 
its course from one tropic to the other, the equa- 
torial zone of calms is found. 

55. 

VII. ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE TIME. 

It is considered 12 o'clock, M., at any place on 
the earth's surface when the sun is on the meridian 
of that place. 

But as the sun has an apparent motion from east 
to west of 15 degrees an hour, or 360 degrees in 
24 hours, evidently it cannot be 12 o'clock at the 
same time, at any two places not on the same meri- 
dian. 

Then at any place, as Boston, lying on a meri- 
dian east of any other place, as New Orleans, it 
must be 12 o'clock, or noon, before it is noon at the 
latter place, because the sun will reach the meri- 
dian of Boston sooner, in its westward course, than 
it will the meridian of New Orleans. 

Hence, if it is noon at Boston, it will be forenoon 
at New Orleans, and if it is noon at New Orleans 
11* 



218 GEOGRAPHY. 

it will be afternoon at Boston. While then abso- 
lute time is the same in all places, relative time is 
later at places lying east of us, and earlier at places 
lying west of us. 

Illustration. Insert a pin at Boston, another at 
New Orleans, assuming any object on a horizontal 
line with the globe for a sun. Turn the globe on 
its axis, from west to east, it is seen that the pin at 
Boston comes under the assumed sun before the 
pin at New Orleans. 

56. 

VIII. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES. 

Take a narrow tape, and make it the same length 
of the equator on the globe. Divide by folding 
into 5 equal parts. Mark with pencil or pen these 
divisons. In the same manner subdivide these di- 
visions into 5 other equal parts. Call each 1000 
miles. Again divide these as many times as con- 
venient. 

A scale is now made by which distances, from 
place to place, may be ascertained, the comparative 
length of different routes or voyages knpwn, etc. 
These, as fast as ascertained, should be committed 
to memory, or written down for future reference. 
This is found to be an amusing and instructive 
exorcise, valuable in family or school, to keep chil- 
dren out of mischief, and to imprint on their 
minds some of the most important geograpical 
knowledge. 



USE OF APPARATUS. 
57. 



24a 




I— ( 



This instrument is designed to illustrate all the 
phenomena resulting from the relations of the Sun, 
Moon and Earth, to each other. The most impor- 
tant of these phenomena are the succession of day 
and night ; the change of seasons ; the change of 
the Sun's declination ; the different lengths of day 
and night; the rising of the Sun north of east in 
summer; the changes of the Moon ; solar and lu- 
nar eclipses ; spring and neap tides ; the later 
daily recurrence of the tides ; the length of days 



250 GEOGRAPHY. 

on the Moon ; the appearance of the Earth to ob- 
servers on the Moon ; the harvest Moon ; the dif- 
ference of a synodical and sidereal revolution of the 
moon ; the precession of the equinoxes and the 
difference of a solar and sidereal year. All these 
phenomena may be explained by the Tellurian, 
with a simplicity that brings them within the com- 
prehension of a child. Before passing to an ex- 
planation of the manner in which they may be il- 
lustrated, I shall describe the construction of the 
instrument, and give directions for its adjustment. 

58. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

The Tellurian, as seen by the cut, consists of 
the stand ; the arm ; the three fixed pulleys ; the 
handle ; the three movable pulleys ; the inclina- 
tion wire; the moon's orbit plane; the extension 
screw, and the three balls representing the Sun, 
Earth, and Moon. Of these three balls, the globe 
is three inches in diameter; the small ball, seven- 
eights of an inch, giving nearly the true propor- 
tionate size of the moon ; and the large ball, five 
inches, the true proportionate size of W'hich would 
be nearly twenty-eight feet. The proportionate 
distance of the moon from the earth would be 
seven and a half feet ; while the earth should be 
placed at the distance of two thousand nine hun- 
dred and sixty-nine feet from the sun. It is per- 
ceived, that an instrument, giving the true propor- 
tionate sizes and distances, could not well be con- 
structed ; and were it constructed, would require 
either a telescope or microscope to examine it. 



USE OF APPARATUS. 251 

Notwithstanding the proportions are not preserved 
in the Tellurian, the causes of the various phe- 
nomena appear much more clearly than if they 
were. 

Of the three fixed pulleys, only the upper and 
larg-er one is seen in the fi2;ure. There are three 
corresponding movable pulleys on the end of the 
arm, each moving independently of the other. The 
upper pair of pulleys, one movable and one fixed, 
being connected with a cord passing around both, 
serve to give motion to the moon around the earth. 
The middle pair, connected by a cord in a similar 
manner, give a slow motion to the moon's orbit 
plane. The lower pair being both of the same size 
and connected by a cord, preserve the parallelism 
of the inclination wire or axis of the earth. 

The extension screw is for the purpose of tight- 
ening the cords when they become slack by use. 

59. 

ADJUSTMENT. 

In setting up the instrument, screw the upright 
standard, to which the arm and fixed pulleys are 
attached, into the circular base ; place the movable 
pulley, with the orbit plane, on the wire at the end 
of the arm; arrange the cords around the respec- 
tive pairs of pulleys, crossing the cord which goes 
around the upper pair, (this is the longest cord of 
the three;) place the globe on the inclination wire 
and the sun or large ball on the wire in the handle ; 
then turn the stand so that the dividing line, be- 
tween Aries and Pisces, on the horizontal circle on 
the large fixed pulley, shall be on the east side of 



252 



GEOGRAPHY. 



the center; again, by applying the thumb and fin- 
ger to the lower and movable pulley, turn the in- 
clination wire and globe on it, so that the north 
pole of the globe shall be directed toward the north 
star. The instrument is now adjusted. 

If by means of the handle the arm is turned 
around, it will be observed, that the sun and earth 
revolve around a common centre of griivity ; that 
the sun revolves on its axis by coming in contact 
with the large pulley ; that the moon revolves 
around the earth thirteen times while the earth 
goes around the sun once ; that the parallelism of 
the earth's axis is maintained, always pointing 
toward the north. The revolution of the earth, on 
its axis, is efi'eeted by striking the globe lightly with 
the finger. The motion of all the balls should be 
from west to east, in the southern part of their orbits. 



60. 

DAY AND NIGHT. 

The succession of day and night is best repre- 
sented by placing a short lighted candle on the 
center of the large fixed pulley, in a darkened room. 
Half of the globe will then be seen to be in light 
and half in shade. Insert a small pin at your place 
of residence on the globe, as nearly as may be, and 
turn the globe on its axis with the finger, from west 
to east on the south side. It will be noticed, that 
the place, thus designated, is alternately in light 
and shade, or in day and night. And, if the pin 
is supposed to be an observer, it will see the sun 
coming into view, or risin2: over countries or seas 



USE OF APPARATUS. 253 

at the cast, and passing around over its meridian, 
disappearing or setting behind countries and seas 
lying in the west. 

61. 

VARIATION IN LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT. 

If the arm of the Tellurian, adjusted as already 
explained, be turned so as to bring the globe di- 
rectly west of the yellow ball or sun,^-^ both poles 
will be illuminated by the light of the candle, as if 
proceeding from the Sun, and all parts of the globe, 
excepting the poles, will come successively and 
equally into light and shade, when it is made to 
revolve equally on its axis. At this point, then, in 
the earth's orbit, as well as at the opposite point, 
the days and nights will be equal all over its surface. 
Hence, the east and west points of the Earth's orbit 
are called by astronomers equinoctial points or equi- 
noxes, from cquus, equal, and nox, noctis^ night. 

But as the earth passes on in its orbit from the 
western equinox toward the south, since the axis 
continues directed toward the north, the light will 
gradually extend over the north pole and recede 
from the south pole. The northern hemisphere 
will thus become more than half illuminated, and 
the southern proportionally less. jSTow, it will be 
perceived that any place north of the equator will 
remain longer and longer in light at each diurnal 
revolution as the earth advances, until it arrives at 
the southern point of its orbit. Here the light 



* When the words Sun, Earth, anrl Moov, be?in with capitals, they 
refer to the bodies, in the heavens; but when they betrin Avith small 
letters^ they refer to the balls which represent them on the Tellurian. 



254 



GEOGRAPHY. 



will extend over tlie north pole twenty-three and a 
half degrees, and fall as far short of the south pole, 
giving the longest possible day to the northern 
hemisphere, and the shortest possible night. 

Notice, too, that all places north of the Arctic 
Circle will make more than one entire revolution 
in light, and thus have a day of more than twenty- 
four hours in length. 

Again, turn the arm and carry the globe through 
the northern part of its orbit, it will readily appear 
why the inhabitants of the northern hemisphere 
have nights longer than days in that part of the 
Earth's orbit. 

That both poles must have days and nights of 
six months each, is also apparent. 

62. 

THE CHANGE OF SEASONS. 

The inclination of the Earth's axis, together with 
its parallelism, influences more or less all terrestrial 
phenomena. The attentive 2:)upil must have already 
seen, that the variation in the length of day and 
night is the result of this cause. If so, he is pre- 
pared to understand in what manner the change of 
seasons is brought about by the same means. 

Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward 
the south, then the earth's axis will be inclined to- 
ward the sun, and a line extending from the earth's 
center to the sun's center, will pass through the 
tropic of Cancer. Hence, an observer on that tropic 
would, at noon, see the Sun directly overhead when 
the Sun and Earth are in this position with regard 



I 



USE OF APPARATUS. 255 

to each other, and all the inhabitants of the north- 
ern temperate and frigid zones would see the Sun 
at its greatest altitude. This must be midsummer, 
or as it is termed by astronomers, the summer sol- 
stice. Observe that the longest day occurs at this 
time in the northern hemisphere, and that the Sun 
is more nearly vertical when on the meridian at all 
places north of the tropic of Cancer than at any 
other time of the year; i. e., the Sun shines a lar- 
ger portion of the twenty-four hours on this part 
of the Earth's surface, and emits a larger amount of 
rays on any given space than at any other time. 

Now, move the arm around toward the east ; as 
the inclination of the axis continues toward the 
north, it becomes less and less inclined toward the 
sun as the earth moves on to the eastern part of 
its orbit. Being at the eastern point, it is neither 
inclined to nor from the sun, but the extremities or 
poles are equally illuminated. As before shown, 
this is one of the equinoxes, and as it succeeds 
summer, it must be the autumnal equinox. The 
sun is now vertical at the equator ; in other words, 
"is crossing the line." 

Again, turn the arm toward the north ; observe 
that the north pole is carried into darkness, while 
the south pole is brought more and more into light. 
If the earth has reached the north point of its orbit, 
the axis is inclined away from the sun, and the 
southern hemisphere is more directly under its 
influence. The sun will now be vertical at the 
tropic of Capricorn, and shine a longer portion of 
the twenty-four hours on the southern hemisphere, 



256 



GEOGRAPHY 



and Avitli greater intensity, wliile the days are 
shorter, and the rays more oblique on the northern 
hemisphere than at any other time of the year. 
Here, then, must b,e the winter solstice to the in- 
habitants of the northern hemisphere. 

Carry the arm around toward the west, at the 
same time make the globe revolve on its axis; ob- 
serve that the days become longer and longer in the 
northern hemisphere, while the earth is prosecut- 
ing this part of its annual journey. The globe 
having arrived at the west point of its orbit, occu- 
pies the same relative position with regard to the 
candle as the Earth with regard to the Sun, at the 
vernal equinox. The sun is now visible at both 
poles, and is again crossing the line. 

Thus having followed the round of the seasons, 
we cannot but admire the simplicity of the mechan- 
ism which produces such varied and beautiful re- 
sults. Were the axis perpendicular to the plane 
of the orbit, there could be no change of seasons, 
but unvarying arid heat would prevail in the equa- 
torial regions; while perpetual frosts would reig-n 
over a much larger portion of the Earth's surface 
than under the existing arrangement. 

The tropics, so called, because at these liner? the 
Sun turns back toward the equator, depend for their 
locality upon the axial inclination, being necessa 
rily as many degrees from the equator as the axis 
is inclined from the perpendicular. Were the axis 
to lie down on the plane of the orbit, the tropics 
would be in the poles, and the polar circles at the 
equator. 



USE OF APPARATUS. 257 

63. 

RISING AND SETTING OF THE SUN NORTH OF THE 
EAST AND WEST POINTS OF THE HEAVENS. 

Since the Sun never comes further north than the 
tropic of Cancer, how is it, that morning and eve- 
ning, even in our latitude, it casts its rays on the 
north side of our dwellings and other objects dur- 
ino; the summer months? 

In order to understand this the more readily, let 
us consider the appearance of the Sun at the poles. 
About the 20th of March it begins to make its ap- 
pearance, gradually rising into view as it makes the 
entire circuit of the horizon every twenty-four 
hours. Higher and higher it rises, passing around 
the heavens, almost entirely parallel with the ho- 
rizon, until, at midday, corresponding to our mid- 
summer, it reaches the altitude of twenty-three and 
a half degrees, and from that time winds downward, 
and in three months is lost again behind the con- 
tinent of ice. 

At any place within the Arctic Circle, except 
at the north pole, once in the year at least, the sun 
will be seen directly in the north, as can be shown 
by the globe of the Tellurian. Below the Arctic 
Circle and near it, the sun will be seen just dipping 
below the horizon, a few degrees west of the merid- 
ian, and soon emerging as many degrees east of it. 
The farther south the observer is situated, the lon- 
n-er will the sun continue below the horizon, and 
the nearer will it rise and set in the east and west 
points of the heavens ; in other words, the further 



258 



GEOGRAPHY. 



north lie is situated, the nearer will it rise and 
set to the north point of the horizon. 

64. 

SIDEREAL AND SOLAR DAY. 

While the Earth is revolving on its axis, it is 
likewise revolving around the Sun ; hence, an en- 
tire diurnal revolution which brings any locality 
under the same star, will not bring it into the same 
relation to the Sun. 

Let the arm of the Tellurian be directed toward 
the north ; insert a pin at any point on the equa- 
tor of the globe ; let the pin be directed toward 
the sun, (yellow ball,) which will be exactly south. 
Now turn the globe once on its axis, at the same 
time moving the arm forward a short distance to- 
ward the west. When the pin is brought around 
again toward the south, it is not directed toward 
the sun as before, but must make a part of another 
revolution to come round in the direction of the 
sun. The first is the sidereal ; the second, the 
solar revolution or day. There will, of course, be 
one more sidereal revolution than solar in a year, 
however few or many there may be of either, unless 
the revolutions are in opposite directions, when 
there will be one less. 

65. 

REVOLUTIONS OF THE MOON. 

The Moon has at least three revolutions : the 
first on its axis, the second around the Earth, the 
third around the Sun. 

The Tellurian represents the Moon as present- 



USE OF APPARATUS. 259 

ing always the same side to the Earth. This is 
true to nature, and it gives the moon one revolu- 
tion around the earth, as, obviously, all sides of 
the moon will be brought successively under the 
eye of an observer situated beyond the moon's 
orbit. The fact of one side being presented always 
to the Earth, has been attributed to the greater 
specific gravity of that side, making it hang down 
toward the Earth. ^ 

66. 

CHANGES OF THE MOON. 

The chansfes of the Moon are the result of its 
opacity and its revolution about the Earth. We 
have new and full Moon once in twenty-nine and a 
half days, from the fact that its revolution around 
the Earth once in twenty-eight days, in connection 
with the common motion of these bodies around the 
Sun, bring them all into the same relation with re- 
gard to each other in that period. This period is 
called a lunation or hnar month. 

Placing a strong light on the Tellurian, as be- 
fore, turn the arm so as to bring the moon between 
the sun and earth. Evidently the dark side of the 
moon is now toward the earth, and this is the 
position of the three bodies at neio moon. Thus 
situated, the sun and moon are said to be in con- 
junction. 

Turn the arm again, and bring the moon 
around on the side of the earth opposite the sun. 



*NoTE. — The <iif;erence of a sidereal and a synodical revolution cau 
be shown in a manner similar to that of illustrating the difference of a 
sidereal and ;ola; day. 



260 



GEOGRAPHY. 



The illuminated side of the Moon is now present- 
ed to the Ecarth. This' is full moon, and the Sun 
and Moon, in this position, are said to be in opposi- 
tion. As the Moon's orbit is not on the same 
plane with the Earth's orbit, the Moon is some- 
times above and sometimes below the plane of the 
Earth's orbit or ccUptic at new and full. Hence 
we do not always see exactly the same hemisphere 
at full moon, or the crescent pointing in the same 
direction at new moon. The horns of the crescent 
will, however, always point away from the Sun, 
whether above or below; or, as we say, the Moon 
runs high or rnns loio ; all of which can be clear- 
ly shown by the Tellurian. 

The intermediate phases, as the quadrants and 
octants, are also seen by the Tellurian, but perhaps 
more clearly by the use of the Lunarian. 



67. 

ECLIPSES. 

An eclipse is nothing more than an obscuration 
of the Sun or Moon by the interception of the Sun's 
rays. 

An eclipse of the Sun, or a solar eclipse, is 
shown by turning the Tellurian arm until the 
moon casts a shadow on the earth's surface. An 
eye, situated at the place of the shadow, could not, 
of course, see the luminous part of the candle. So, 
on the earth's surface, wherever the shadow of the 
Moon falls, the Sun can not be seen, as it is in an 
eclipse. A solar eclipse commonly happens at new 
moon, and can be ioial when the Moon's center is 



USE OF APPARATUS. 261 

in, or very near, tlie ecliptic, or when the Moon is 
at one of its nodes. Since, as shown by the Tellu- 
rian, the Moon is sometimes above and sometimes 
below the ecliptic, at this period, it is obvious that 
an eclipse can not happen at every new moon. 

A p«r^ia? eclipse will occur wherever a part of 
the Sun's disk is obscured by the intervention of 
the Moon. 

A lunar eclipse is shown by turning the Tellu- 
rian arm until the moon comes into the shadow of 
the earth, either partially or entirely ; giving a 
partial or total eclipse. Neither of these can hap- 
pen at every full moon, in consequence of the obli- 
quity of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic. The 
construction of the instrument is such that the 
moon's orbit plane will come into the same rela- 
tion to the earth's plane once in eighteen revolu- 
tions of the earth around the sun. This ar- 
rangement corresponds to the Chaldaic period in 
nature, which gives the recurrence of nearly 
the same order of eclipses once in eighteen years 
and ten days. By means of this period, the an- 
cients were enabled to foretell eclipses, but with no 
great degree of precision. 

68. 

TIDES. 

Tides are the result of the unequal attraction of 
the Moon on the water on the Earth's surf\ice, and 
on the inflexible mass of the Earth itself. They are 
influenced likewise by the Sun, and by the form 
and position of coasts and harbors. 



262 GEOGRAPHY. 

Since tlie water under the Moon is 4,000 miles 
nearer to it than the centre of the Earth, it will be 
attracted by as much greater force than the Earth 
as the square of 240,000 is greater than the square 
of 236,000. Hence the water is heaped up under 
the Moon, and this elevated mass of water will pass 
around the Earth as far as continents will permit, 
once in twenty-four hours, or as often as the Earth 
revolves under the Moon. This will account for a 
tide once a day. But there are two tides daily. 
How IS this ? 

Since the Earth's centre is 4,000 miles nearer to 
the Moon than the water on the Earth's surface 
opposite the Moon, the Earth is drawn away from 
this water on its surface opposite the Moon. And 
as the water under the Moon is drawn away from 
the Earth, so the Earth is as much drawn away 
from the water on the side opposite the Moon. 
Hence, there will be a tide opposite the Moon as 
well as under it, and the two tides will be equal, or 
nearly so. This will give any place within the 
reach of tide -water two tides in a day. 

69. 

LATER DAILY RECURRENCE OF TIDES. 

Tides happen about fifty minutes later everyday, 
in consequence of the motion of the Moon in its 
orbit around the Earth. 

This may be shown by giving motion to the 
Tellurian arm and the globe on its axis at the same 
time. Observe that any place on the earth must 
make more than an entire revolution to come 



USE OF APPARATUS. 263 

around the second time under the moon, whereas if 
the moon were stationary, then a complete revolu- 
tion would bring the same meridian again under it. 

70. 

SPRING AND NEAP TIDES. 

It is found by observation, that the influence of 
the Sun on the tides is about one-fourth as great as 
that of the Moon. 

By the Tellurian, it is show^n, that when the Sun 
and Moon are either in opposition or in conjunc- 
tion, their influences combine to produce a tide 
equal to the sum of the tides they would produce 
separately. This is called a spring tide, and will 
happen either at new or full moon. 

Again, it is shown, that when the Moon is at its 
quadratures, the tide will be equal to the difi*er- 
ence of the Sun's and Moon's tides separately. 
This is called the neap tide. 

The highest tide possible, atir any given place, 
will happen under the concurrence of the follow- 
ing circumstances, viz : The Earth in its perihe- 
lion, the Moon in its perigee, at one of its syzygies, 
and in the zenith or nadir. 

71. 

PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. 

The precession of the Equinoxes is the recur- 
rence of the Equinoxes or any other period of the 
year before the Earth has made an entire revolution 
around the Sun. 

It it is found that a year is twenty minutes and 
12 



264 



GEOGRAPHY. 



seventeen seconds less than the time required for 
an entire revolution. This is occasioned by a 
change, not on the inclination of the Earth's 
axis, but on the direction of that inclination. To 
show this clearly, take hold of the lower movable 
pulley with the thumb and finger, and turn that 
pulley half the way round. In so doing, you will 
cause the axis of the Earth to point south instead 
of north, but with the same inclination still. In 
nature, it requires 12,934 years to make the 
change, and 25,868 years to bring the axis back 
again into its present position. Now, if you start 
the arm from the east, where the globe will be in 
the position of the autumnal equinox, and while 
you turn the arm, you at the same time turn the 
axis so that it shall incline easterly, you have only 
to carry the arm around to the south to bring the 
globe into the position of the autumnal equinox 
again ; i. e., a quarter of a revolution of the axis 
produces a precession of fhe equinox — equal to a 
quarter of the Earth's orbit. The precession, then, 
we see, is equal to the part of a revolution that the 
axis makes. It really makes a change of 50'M 
in a 3' ear, and the precession is the same, and it 
requires twenty minutes and seventeen seconds for 
the earth to pass that part of its orbit. Hence, as 
before stated, the year is so much less than the 
time required for an entire revolution. 



L_ 



PART V . 

METHODS OF TEACHING MENTAL, 
PRACTICAL, AND THEORET- 
ICAL ARITHMETIC. 



INTRODUCTION. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

The objects aimed at by the true teacher for 
his class in Mental Arithmetic, are — 

1st. Distinct mental conceptions. Some teachers 
make use of numeral frames, and a variety of other 
expedients, to aid their pupils in realizing the 
powers of numbers. I am of the opinion that such 
aids may be relied on too far ; so far as to retard 
the operation of the mind in forming its own con- 
ceptions. The large majority of pupils will ad- 
vance more rapidly and self-relyingly. without 
any visible representations whatever, and should 
they be needed, marks on the blackboard answer 
every purpose. 

2d. Clear views of cause and effect. From the 
very first exercise in Arithmetic, ihe relation of 
cause and effect is ever before the mind ; equally 
as much in answering the question. One and one 
are how many? as in the most complex problems^ 
requiring a long continued course of analysis and 
synthesis for solution. In fact, every operation is 

(267) 



268 



ARITHMETIC. 



but an application, in some form, of the law of 
cause and efiect. Hence Arithmetic, and especially 
Mental Arithmetic, aifords a fine field for the cul- 
tivation of the reasoning faculties. There is no 
better, if properly managed. 

3d. Certainty in the courses of reasoning. This 
should be aimed at just as much, in the simpler 
steps, in the first lessons, as in the higher walks 
of more advanced stages. For if entire certainty 
is not secured in the preliminary steps, what else 
may be expected of the more advanced exercises 
than conjecture, doubt and uncertainty in the 
proce-sses and results? 

4th. Precision in language. This implies not 
only a clear distinction of abstract and concrete 
quantities, and the use of the necessary language 
to make such distinction without tautology, if pos- 
sible; but it does not admit of any forms of false 
or doubtful syntax in the enunciation or solution 
of questions. 

5th. A thorough iinderstanding of fractions. — 
There is no aspect in which a Mental Arithmetic 
class can appear to so good advantage before an 
examining committee, as in the ready and success- 
ful management of fractional num])ers. A knowl- 
edge of powers and multiples is indispensable to 
free use of fractional quantities. 

6th. Rapid itg in tlie solution of questions. Cer- 
tainty should be aimed at from the very first, but 
as the class advances emulation should be brought 
into play in exciting the minds of the lohole class 
to rapid combinations and evolutions. Most 



INTRODUCTION. 269 

astonisliing results may be attained, even with 
slu2:2;isli minds, in this direction. 

7th. Artljices for abridging labor. These should 
never be introduced till the scholar is well drilled 
in the full and logical forms of procedure, but 
then they may be used with great interest and 
efifect. 

8th. Cultivation of Memory/. To this end no 
book should be used by the class, during recita- 
tion ; and at every lesson more or less impromptu 
and "random questions" should be given. Ex- 
amples of these will appear in the following pages. 

WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

The OBJECTS to be aimed at in AVritten Arith- 
metic, are — 

1st. Correctness in operation. Written Arith- 
metic looks more particularly to operations in 
dollars and cents, in the counting room, workshop, 
or market; and the teacher who should tolerate 
any want of accuracy in the operations of the 
pupil would be false to his interests. 

2d. Rapidity in operation. When it is known, 
that by practice, two or three long columns of fig- 
ures can be added with as much rapidity as one is, 
ordinarily, it is seen that there is abundant room 
for improvement, not only in scholars but in most 
teachers. Multiplication and division are equally 
susceptible of condensed operations, yielding re- 
mote results in "less than no time" to the expert 
calculator. 



270 ARITHMETIC. 

3(1. Artifices for abridging labor. Every possi- 
bility of cancellation should be familiar, every 
contraction in the fundamental rules, every use of 
aliquot parts, and factors, should be so frequently 
and so long dwelt upon by a class, that the "short- 
est method" will always afterward present itself, 
in business life, as if by intuition. 

4th. Ready and reliable means of proof . As 
there are no "answers" to real business transac- 
tions, except such as the business man obtains for 
himself, it seems to me altogether preferable to 
accustom scholars in practical arithmetic, to prove 
their work from the first. Of course the " best 
methods" should be sought by the teacher, and 
practiced by the pupil, till he has little occasion 
for " the answer in the book." Books without 
answers are desirable for this end ; but the teacher 
should be the more watchful and exacting in the 
matter of proofs, if the text book is furnished with 
answers. 

THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

The objects to be aimed at in Theoretical 
Arithmetic, are — 

1st. A tliorovgh understanding of all the peculiar 
and common properties of numbers as high as twelve. 
The demonstration and use of these properties are 
equally useful and interesting. 

2d. Development of reasoning faculties. Greom- 
etry is frequently resorted to for this purpose and 
for no other. Theoretical Arithmetic is no less 
effectual, if pursued with as much rigor as the sub- 



INTRODUCTION. 271 

ject demands. The definitions and axioms should 
be as clearly stated, and the propositions as well 
connected, and as logically proved as those of 
Geometry; while for the great majority of pupils 
there is immeasurably a greater demand for the 
use of the principles of Arithmetic than for those 
of Geometry. 

3d. Cultivation of the power of accurate expres- 
sion of thought. There is no department of science 
where we find so much looseness in definitions and 
rules, as in Arithmetic, notwithstanding the multi- 
tude of text books on thas subject, and the higher 
claims of each successive author, in this particular. 
This very looseness in authors afi"ords the critical 
teacher a fine field, if not for display of his own 
acumen; yet for arousing the energies of his pupils 
to excel their text book. 

4th. A knowledge of the curiosities of the science. 

5th. An acquaintance with the worhs of various 
authors. It will be found a very desirable prac- 
tice, in pursuing a course of Theoretical Arith- 
metic, to consult the various authors who have 
written on the subject. A more liberal and sym- 
metrical view of the science is thus obtained than 
from any one author. Respect for authors is thus 
diminished, while the love for the truth is en- 
hanced. 

12* 



METHOD OF TEACHING MENTAL ARITH- 
METIC TO PRIMARY CLASSES. 



LESSON I. 
1. 

First Step — How to secure Books. A course 
similar to tliat described on page 184, Sec. 2, may 
be pursued. 

Second Step — Counting. Teacher. — Children, 
how many of you can count a hundred? [A ma- 
jority raise their hands.] As many as can count 
ten may raise the hand. [Nearly all hands rise.] 
Now we will see. I will make some marks on the 
blackboard and you may all count them as I make 
them. 

The teacher makes the marks, (circles,) on the 
board, and the children count in concert. He 
soon learns the ability of the class in counting; 
and drills those unable to count ten in counting 
marks, buttons, fingers, desks, windows, panes of 
glass, etc., till they can tell the number of objects 
as high as ten. They may then be required to 
make as many marks on the board as the teacher 
designates. 
(272) 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 273 

2. 

Third Step — Preliminary Drill on Lesson I. 
Ray's Mental Aritlimetic. 

Teacher. — Children, you may now open your 
books to Lesson I., on page 8, as many as have 
books. Those who have no books may look over 
others' books to-day, but all who remain in the 
class must have books to-morrow. We can have 
no looking over after to-day. 

Have you all found it? Charles, you may read 
the first question, beginning " James had an ap- 
ple.'" 

Charles reads the question. 

Teacher. — How many can answer it? As many 
as can may raise the hand. [All hands rise.] 
Sarah, you may answer it. Sarah. — Two. Teacher, 
Susan, you may read the next question. Susan 
reads. Teacher. — How many can answer this ques- 
tion? The teacher will be careful to call on those 
pupils who are the most backward or inattentive. 

In a similar manner, this lesson, or so much of 
it as the class can bear, is passed over in prepara- 
tion for studying it. 

Teacher. — Now I wish you to study this lesson 
which you have been reading, so that you can 
answer all the questions without the book, when 
you come again to recite. I will read the ques- 
tions and you may answer them without looking 
on the book at all. How many will study this 
lesson and learn it well? [All hands rise.] 

The class is now dismissed in order, and notes 
written to parents for the necessary books. 



'~\ 



r 



274 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

LESSON II. 
3. 

First Step — Recitation. The teaclier reads 
the question to the whole class, and calls on one 
pupil by name for an answer. He will be careful 
not to omit any, but he should not pursue the 
order in which they sit. He may follow the order 
of his register for this class, forwards or backwards, 
taking all the names as they stand, or taking them 
alternately, backwards or forwards : or he may 
depart from this order, when he sees any scholar 
inattentive, by giving him a question. 

Making Figures. As each scholar answers his 
question, he may go to the blackboard, and make 
the figures corresponding to the numbers used in 
the question and answer, and perform the opera- 
tion by adding the figures as in Written Arithmetic. 
Of course, the mental operation comes first and 
the answer by this means. AVith a primary class 
it is much better thus to combine Written with 
Mental Arithmetic as they proceed. 

Second Step — Preliminary Drill for next les- 
son. 

Remarh. The class will pursue the course de- 
scribed in Lesson II, for many days, until they 
acquire a knowledge of counting, of the use of 
figures, and the power of making them correctly 
on the slate or blackboard, till they can perform 
the operation of addition and subtraction by either 
the mental or written process ; but when multipli- 
cation is reached the regular steps of a solution 
should be taught, which are as follows : — 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 275 

4. 
ADVANCED LESSON. 

Recitatiox. Teaclier reads a question for the 
whole class: " At 7 cents apiece what will 3 mel- 
ons cost?" After waiting till most of the class 
have raised their hands as each has obtained the 
result, he speaks the word " class." Then all who 
have obtained the result raise their hands together. 
He calls on one pupil by name to give the result; 
then on all who agree with this result to raise 
their hands ; then on all who have another result, 
to raise their hands; then on some individual, from 
his register, in order, by name, to give a solution 
of the question, which is done in the manner de- 
scribed in the following section. 

5. 

SOLUTIONS. 

First Step — Scholar rises axd repeats the 
Question. If he fails, the teacher says, "Class, 
who can give him the question?" Hands rise. 
The teacher then calls on some one to repeat the 
question. He repeats it without rising. First 
scholar, still standing, also repeats it. 

Second Step — Scholar gives the Analysis, or 
explains the method of solving the question. If 
he fails, pursue the same course to correct him as 
in the first step. 

Third Step — Scholar performs the Operations, 
and obtains the result. 

Fourth Step — Scholar gives the Conclusion, 
as nearly as possible in the language of the ques- 
tion. 



276 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

Remark. After the teacher has drilled the class 
in solutions, in multiplication, they may return to 
addition for a few solutions. 

6. 

FIRST EXAMPLE. — ADDITION. 

Teaclier reads, James had five cents, and he 
found seven more; how many had he then? When 
it is seen by hands rising that nearly all the class 
have obtained the result, he says " Class." Then 
all who have solved the question raise their hands 
together. 

Teaclier, — Henry, what is the result? 

Henry. — Twelve. 

Teacher. — How many agree? [Hands rise.] 
How many have a different result? [Hands rise.] 
Mary. Mary. — Twelve cents. Teaclier. — Yery 
well. Sarah, you may give the solution. 

Sarah, rising, repeats (not reads) the question. 

First Step. James had five cents, and he found 
seven more, how many had he then? 

Second Step. He had as many as the sum of 
five cents and seven cents. 

Third Step. Five cents plus seven cents are 
twelve cents. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if James had five 
cents, and found seven more, he then had twelve 
cents. 

7. 

SECOND EXAMPLE.^-SUBTRACTION. 

The teacher having read the question — 
Maria., rising, gives the solution thus : 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 277 

First Step. A boy having eight marbles, lost 
five of them, how many had he left? 

Second Step. He had as many as the differ- 
ence between five marbles and eight marbles. 

Third Step. Eight minus five are three. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if James, having 
eight marbles, lost five of them, he had three mar- 
bles left. 

8. 

THIRD EXAMPLE — ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. 

Peter^ rising, repeats the question. 

First Step. A lady bought a comb for twenty 
five cents, some pins for ten cents, and some tape 
for six cents; she gave the shopkeeper seventy-five 
cents ; how much change ought she to receive? 

Second Step. She ought to receive as many as 
the difference between seventy-five cents and the 
sum of twenty-five cents, and ten cents, and six 
cents. 

Third Step. Twenty-five plus ten, plus six, 
are forty one. Seventy-five minus forty-one are 
thirty-four. 

Fourth Step. Therefore if a lady bought a 
comb for twenty-five cents, some pins for ten cents, 
and some tape for six cents, and gave the shop- 
keeper seventy- five cents, she ought to receive 
forty-one cents in change. 

9. 
fourth example — multiplication. 

Samuel^ rising, gives the solution thus : 
First Step. At four dollars a pair, what will 
five pairs of boots cost? 



278 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 



Second Step. If one pair cost four dollars, five 
pairs will cost five times four dollars, 

Third Step. Which are twenty dollars. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, at four dollars a pair, 
five pairs of boots cost twenty dollars. 

10. 

FIFTH EXAMPLE. DIVISION. 

Susan, rising, gives the solution thus: 

First Step. If a man laid out one hundred 
dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars for each 
cow he bought, how many cows did he buy? 

Second Step. If one cow cost twenty dollars, 
he bought as many cows for one hundred dollars 
as twenty is contained times in one hundred, 

Third Step. Which are five times. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if a man laid out one 
hundred dollars for cows, and paid twenty dollars 
for each cow that he bought he bought five cows. 



11. 

SIXTH EXAMPLE.- 



-DIVISION. 



William, rising, gives the solution thus : 

First Step. If you should buy six oranges for 
twenty-four cents, how much would you pay for 
each orange? 

Second Step. To pay one cent for each orange 
would require six cents ; then you would pay as 
many cents for each orange as six cents is con- 
tained times in twenty-four cents, 

Third Step. Which are four times. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if you should buy six 
oranges for twenty-four cents, you would pay four 
cents for each orange. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 279 

Remark. In examples of this kind the pupil is 
inclined to take it for granted that one kind of 
concrete quantity is contained in another kind of 
concrete quantity. Hence his analysis is likely to 
be thus: " Since you buy six oranges for twenty- 
four cents, each orange will cost as many cents as 
six is contained times in twenty-four." 

Six what is contained times in twenty-four what? 
should be asked by the critical teacher. 

For further examples and solutions I refer the 
teacher to Ray's Mental Arithmetic. 

12. 

VARIATIONS m THE MANAGEMENT OY CLASSES. 

1st. If a class is large, it will be better for each 
pupil, as his name is called from the register, to 
take but one step in a solution. Thus more of the 
class will be reached in a given time, and more 
general attention secured with less difficulty. 

2d. It may be well occasionally to combine the 
second and third steps in one, i. e., let the pupil 
give the process and result of each operation pro- 
posed in the method of solution ; thus^ 

Henry^ rising, gives the solution. 

First Step. If three tuns of hay cost twenty- 
one dollars, what will five tuns cost? 

Second and Third Steps. If three tuns of hay 
cost twenty-one dollars, one tun will cost one-third 
of twenty-one dollars, which is seven dollars; and 
if one tun cost seven dollars, five tuns will cost five 
times seven dollars, which are thirty-five dollars. 

Fourth Step. Therefore, if three tuns of hay 



280 MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

cost twenty-one dollars, five tuns will cost thirty- 
five dollars. 

13. 

RANDOM EXERCISES. 

A random exercise is such as is engaged in by 
the class without previous study, the teacher 
leading. These should be commenced with small 
integral numbers ; and the teacher should proceed 
slowly in his lead, at first bringing in only addi- 
tion and subtraction. As a class improves under 
the exercise, the operations of multiplication and 
division may be introduced ; also, involution and 
evolution; also, fractional quantities. 

I will give a few examples. 

14. 

Example 1st. Teacher. Class, take seven, add 
five, add eight, add five, subtract nine, subtract 
eight. How many have the result? 

The pupils, as many as have followed the teacher 
and have obtained the final result, are expected to 
raise their hands. 

Teacher. — James. James. — Twelve. Teacher. 
How many agree? [No hands rise.] How many 
have a different result. [Hand rises.] Sarah. 
Sarah. — Eight. Teacher. — How many agree with 
Sarah? [Hands rise.] Yery well. How many 
can give the operations aloud? [Hands rise.] 
Susan. Susan. Take seven, add five, which gives 
twelve; add eight, which gives twenty; add five, 
which gives twenty-five; subtract nine, which gives 
sixteen ; subtract eight, which gives eight, the final 
result. Teacher. — Very well, Susan. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 281 

15. 

Example 2d. Teacher. — Class, take fourteen, 
divide by seven, multiply by twelve, multiply by 
two, add two, divide by twenty-five ; how many 
have the result? 

The same course is pursued in bringing out all 
the scholars, in ascertaining how many have fol- 
lowed the question, and how many have not, as 
before. 

16. 

Example 3d. Teacher. — Class, take nine, square 
it, subtract seventeen, take square root, double it, 
take the square root, take the square root ; how 
many have the result? 

17. 

Example 4th. Take one hundred, multiply by 
nine-tenths, multiply by eight-ninths, multiply by 
seven-eighths, multiply by six-sevenths, multiply 
by five-sixths, multiply by four-fifths j how many 
have the result? 

18. 

Example 5th. Take eight, divide by four-fifths, 
divide by five-sixths, divide by six-sevenths, divide 
by seven-eighths. How many have the result? | 

19. 
Example 6th. A monkey started up a mast 
sixty feet high ; he ran up twenty feet, down eight 
feet, up fifteen feet, up seventeen feet, up six feet, 
jumped up five feet, and where was he? 
24 



282 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 



20. 

The variatiojtis of random exercises are, of course, 
endless. They serve for variety, and if properly 
managed will arouse any desirable amount of en- 
thusiasm in a class. They should not, however, 
be relied on, to any great extent, as a means of 
suitable training, in Mental Arithmetic. 

I will give one more example, involving a few 
contractions, which may be reached by the class in 
the appropriate successive drills on each contrac- 
tion. 

21. 

EXAMPLE IN CONTRACTIONS. 

Take eighteen, multiply by five, multiply by 
twenty-five, multiply by ten, take the square root, 
add ten, multiply by twelve and a half, divide by 
thirty-three and a third, multiply by ten, divide 
by sixteen and two-thirds, and what is the result? 

Explanation. 18x5=18x^=90, 90x25=90 
X'V==22bO. 160xl2i=160x'r=2000, 2000-^ 
33J-=2000 XToiy=60, 60 x 10=600. 600^16f 
=600xT^ff=36. 



METHODS OF TEACHING TOITTEN 
ARITHMETIC. 

PRELIMINARY REMARKS. ' 
22. 

Remark 1st. Written Aritlimetic should be 
commenced with Mental Arithmetic. Scholars in 
Mental Arithmetic should be provided with slates, 
and they should be permitted to work out the 
examples, tcliile studying them, on the slate. They 
should also be required to work them on the slate 
or blackboard after having solved them mentally. 

23. 

Remarh 2d. In the management of a large 
class in Written Arithmetic, the principal difficulty 
to be overcome is that of reaching all the schol- 
ars at eiyery recitation. Unless this is done schol- 
ars are liable to remit their efforts, especially on 
such days as they may think the chances are 
against their being.called on to recite. 

This difficulty must be met, if possible, and 
every scholar must know that he will be held re- 
sponsible at every recitation, for a thorough prepa- 
ration of all the lesson. If in the division of time 

(283) 



284 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

among the several classes it shall be found impos- 
sible to give time enough to Arithmetic, to reach 
every scholar, in each recitation, it will be better 
to have the recitation every other day, and the 
Grammar recitation every alternate day. Thus 
double the amount of time could be had for 
each recitation in these two leading subjects, by 
having them occur only half as often. By proper 
management in the use of blackboards and slates, 
every scholar in the largest class may be reached. 

24. 

Remark ?td. The blackboard should be suffi- 
ciently capacious, if possible, to accommodate all 
the class at once. To this end all the space on the 
walls of the room not taken up by windows and 
doors, to the height of six or seven feet, should be 
occupied by blackboard. It is sufficient to paint a 
hard firm wall that is laid on brick. If laid on 
lath, it should first bo covered with the thickest, 
firmest wall paper that can be had, and then paint- 
ed black. If, then, there is not room enough to 
accommodate all the scholars at the same time, 
those who cannot find room on the board for 
working examples, can work them on their slates 
as they sit on the recitation seats ; and the teacher 
can pass around and look over the work of each 
scholar as often as a new example has been as- 
signed and wrought. 

25. 
BemarJc 4^7i. In the earlier steps, especially, it 
is better to give the same example to all the class, 



r~ 



WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 285 

to work simultaneously. But in review lessons, 
and in a more advanced class, it is better to assign 
different examples to each pupil, unless some ex- 
amples more difficult than others should be as- 
signed to several different pupils, or to all of them. 

26. 
Remark t>th. Some teachers think it necessary 
that scholars should understand the reasons of 
every rule, before they are permitted to use it 
in working out examples. This is plausible, but 
will be found to work badly. It is better, gener- 
ally, for scholars to learn the practical working of 
a rule first, and thus have their curiosity excited 
to inquire why they have to do so and so, as the 
rule directs, to obtain the result; rather than to 
force the reasons upon them before they have any 
desire to know them. "With a few of the quicker 
scholars, the latter plan will work well enough ; 
but with the majority of most classes the former 
course is decidedly preferable. There is no trouble 
in feeding a hungry child, but the same food only 
disgusts him when he has no appetite. First ex- 
cite the desire to know ; then administer to the 
mind's cravings. 

27. 
RemarJc 6th. It hardly seems desirable to me 
to require scholars to give arithmetical rules pre- 
cisely in the language of the book. I prefer that 
they should describe the processea in their own lan- 
guage ; a rule in Arithmetic being " a description 
of a process for obtaining a required result." It 



286 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

is more necessary, perhaps, to require the rules 
verbatim from beginners. 

28. 
Remark 7fh. Books without answers are pref- 
erable, for the reason that a strong temptation is 
removed to copy the answers from the book with- 
out solving the questions; for the reason also that 
scholars are more self-relying, and are made, by 
this means, better practical reckoners and account- 
ants. If answers are not desirable in Mental 
Arithmetic, why in Written? 

29. 

Remarh 8(h. I would, if possible, avoid any 
text book in Arithmetic or Algebra which has a 
printed key in market. Keys are paralyzers, 
nuisances, and the teacher should be particularly 
watchful that keys are not resorted to by pupils in 
any of his classes. 

80. 

Remarh ^th. The skilful teacher will always 
prepare his class for any difficulty which may meet 
them in the advance lesson. He may explain the 
difficulty orally ; he may solve an example, not in 
the book, which shall meet the difficulty ; he may 
give the class a preliminary drill on a rule, or on 
a series of more difficult examples under any rule, 
or in miscellaneous examples under a number of 
rules. Such preparation, judiciously given, more 
than anything else, is calculated to keep up the 
ambition of all a class, by removing all excuses 
for laziness and discouragement. 



WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 287 

31. 

Remarh \Oth. Small scholars should be re- 
quired to bring their examples, wrought on slates 
or on paper, to the recitation, which the teacher 
will examine, a-s the Firsi' Step in every recitation. 
This will not prevent their working them again 
during the recitation. 

32. 

Remark llfh. The manner of conducting dif- 
erent recitations in Written Arithmetic are so 
similar that I shall give but two Lessons — as ex- 
amples. 

33. 

PRIMARY LESSON. 

First Ste^p — The Teacher examines the Slate 
or paper of each pupil, to determine how much of 
the lesson assigned has been prepared, and how 
well the work has been executed. He points out 
the errors as he proceeds, giving as much encour- 
agement in every case as possible, and as little 
censure. 

Second Step — Kecitation of Rules or Tables 
assigned for the lesson. 

Third Step — Working the Examples on the 
slates or blackboard. As in few schools there is 
blackboard enough to accommodate all the schol- 
ars, they will be called up in sections to the board 
without books, and will follow the orders of the 

teacher. 

13 



n 

288 WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 

34. 

Order 1st. — Prepare the hoard. This is done 
by erasing any former work, and dividing the 
board by vertical lines into equal spaces for each 
scholar. Each scholar draws a line at his right. 

Order 2d. — Wy^ite the example. The teacher 
then dictates the example and all write it, both 
those at the board, on the board; and those on the 
recitation seat, on their slates. 

Order Zd. — Perforin the example. The teacher 
now has opportunity to note the readiness and 
correctness of each pupil in his work as he pro 
ceeds, whether at the board, or on the seat; or the 
failure or errors of any, or their inclination to 
copy from others' work. 

Order 4ith. James, you may explain your work. 
James proceeds to explain the example as he has 
solved it; and the teacher, at any error, either in 
the work or in the explanation, looks for the rais- 
ing of hands by other members of the class, and 
if no pupil notices the error, he calls attention to 
it by the question, Why do you thus? or by any 
other that the case may require. When James 
has concluded his explanation, the class is called 
on for criticisms. After these are settled, the 
teacher may inquire, "How many understand 
James' explanation?" Hands rise. '• How many 
do not understand the example?" If hands rise 
he may call on James again to explain the exam- 
ple, or on some other pupil, or he may explain it 
himself. 

Order 5th. — Be seated. 



"WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 289 

35. 

The teacher then calls up another section, and 
proceeds in a similar manner with them in the 
working of another example; and so on till the 
time has expired, or so far expired that he can 
only have time for the fourth step. 

Fourth Step — Preliminary explanation and 
DRILL for the next lesson. 

36. 

ADVANCED LESSON. 

Remarh. The same course may be pursued 
with an advanced class as that described for a pri- 
mary class, or the following method may be used. 

First Step. Teacher. — Any who have reports 
to give may prepare their work on the board. 

Scholars, then, to whom any classification, de- 
monstration, or explanation was assigned at any 
previous recitation, for this recitation, take their 
places at the board and make any necessary prepa- 
ration, as writing out the classification or work 
necessary for a demonstration. 

Second Step — Recitation of Kules or Tables 
by the rest of the class. 

Third Step — Scholars at the board give the 
demonstration; and the same order of criticism 
from the class and from the teacher, as was de- 
scribed in the Primary Lesson, is pursued. 

37. 
Fourth Step — Working the examples. The 
course to be pursued is the same as described in 
the Primary Lesson, except that it will be found 



290 



WRITTEN ARITHMETIC. 



necessary to give eacli pupil a diiferent example. 
These may be assigned by number to each pupil, 
he having the book in hand from which to take 
his data. 

Fifth Step — The explanation of examples. 
It is supposed that the teacher, in a preliminary 
drill has himself explained the working of the 
rule; and demonstrated the principles on which 
its different points are based. In this stage of the 
recitation, one pupil is called for the demonstration 
of one principle in connection with his example; 
and another for the demonstration of the same 
principle or another in connection with the ex- 
planation of his example. All under the same 
course of criticism, from other scholars and teach- 
er, as has been before described. 

Sixth Step — Preliminary explanation and 
DRILL for next recitation. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

38. 
Remark. Instead of presenting the metliod of 
teaching Theoretical Arithmetic, I shall give a 
condensed view of the subject itself; leaving it for 
the teacher to apply the methods before described 
for Grrammar and Greography. 

I. ARITHMETIC. 

f (Euclid, B. C. 300, Greek Notation. 

I Ancient, -(Archimides, B. C. 250, Greek Notation. 
I (Diophantes, A. D. 250, " " 

History, ^ f Lucca de Borga, A. D. 1484, Arabic Notation, 

Modprn J Nicholas Pike, A. D. 1776, " « 

1 Moaern, ^ ^^^.^^ Adams, A. D. 1801, 

(. t Warren Colburn, A. D. 1825, Mental Arith'o. 

'Definition, Solution, Rule, Demonstration, -^ . '^^.'^ • . 
' ' 'I indirect. 

Proposition I P^-oblem, Corollary, Scholium, Lemma. 

*^ ( Iheorem. 

Hypotheses, Axiom, Discussion. 

Te-W u„it, Q„auti,y, I M^f^-^-t 

2 r ( Integral, ; \ Abstract, | 
Si J \ Fractional, S \ Concrete, i 

_ I I ( Cardinal, | ( Prime, ) 

^ [ \ Ordinal, S \ Composite, \ 
\ As to uses: — Abstract, Applied. 
Classes, •< As to characters: — Particular, General. 

As to operation : — ^Mental, Written, TheoreticaL 

'Preliminaries !5«^^'^t'°"' 

( JNumeration. 

r Addition, 
Fundamental J Multiplication, 
Operations, | Subtraction, 
Divisions, ■( [Division, 

f 1 Comp. Numbers, 2 Cora. Fractions, 
3 Decimals, 4 Ratio and Proportion, 
5 Percentasce, 6 Partnership, 7 Alle- 
gation, 8 Exchange, 9 Partnership, 
, 10 Involution, 11 Evolution, 12 Men- 
[suration, 13 Analysis. 



Even, I ( Simple, 
Odd, \ \ Comp'nd. 
Rational. 
Surd. 



Increase. 
Diminution. 



Applications 



292 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

39. 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Arithmetic. The Science of Numbers 

History. Notice of the most prominent wri- 
ters, and of the progress of the Science of Arith- 
metic. 

AxciENT History. That which applies to time 
previous to A. D. 1400. 

Modern History. That which applies to time 
subsequent to A. D., 1400. 

Euclid was the first writer on Mathematics 
whose works have come down to us. He wrote 
on Geometry and Optics, as well as on Arithmetic. 
He established a school for Mathematics at Alex- 
andria in Egypt, which Ptolemy Lagus, the Egyp- 
tian Monarch, attended. AVhen the pupil inquired 
of Euclid, if there was no easier method of learn- 
ing Mathematics, Euclid replied, " There is no 
royal road to Geometry." 

Althoug-h he was the first writer on Mathemat- 
ics, he was indebted to Thales and Pythagoras, 
celebrated teachers, for much contained in his 
works. 

Archimides flourished in Syracuse. He made 
many discoveries in Mathematics, and inventions 
in Mechanics. One of the former was the ratio of 
the cylinder to the inscribed sphere ; one of the 
latter was an arrangement of mirrors by which he 
set the Roman fleet on fire. He also discovered 
the means of obtaining the specific gravity of 
bodies. Several fragments of his writings are 
extant, but nothing on Arithmetic. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 293 

DioPHANTUs flourished at Alexandria. The time 
at which he wrote is not definitely known. But 
his works remain, both on Arithmetic and Alge- 
bra. He was the first writer on Algebra. 

Lucca de Borga is worthy of note, as being the 
first European writer who made use of the Arabic 
Notation. 

40. 

Definition. Such a description of an object as 
includes everything of the kind, and excludes 
everything else. 

Solution. A process by which a required re- 
sult is obtained. 

Rule. A description of a general process for 
obtaining a required result. 

Demonstration. A course of reasoning by 
which the propriety of a Rule is made obvious ; 
also a course of reasoning by which a proposed 
truth is established. 

Direct Demonstration. One that commences 
with known truths ; and by a course of reasoning 
establishes the proposed truth. 

Indirect Demonstration. One which assumes 
the proposed truth to be false, and then proves 
that an absurdity will result from the assumption. 
This is also called a Reductio ad absurdum. 

Proposition. That which requires a solution, 
or a demonstration. 

Problem. A question proposed for solution. 

Theorem. A truth requiring a demonstration 
to establish it. 



294 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Corollary. A truth deduced from a preceding 
proposition. 

Scholium, A remark on a preceding proposi- 
tion, showing its application, restriction, or exten- 
sion. 

Lemma. A subsidiary proposition. 

Hypothesis. A supposition made either in the 
statement or demonstration of a proposition. 

Axiom. A self-evident truth. 

Discussion. A course of investigation by which 
the properties, relations, and applications of any 
number, proposition, or rule, are demonstrated. 

41. 

Quantity. That which can be increased, dimin- 
ished, or measured. 

Magnitude. Undivided Quantity ; also that 
form of quantity which answers the question. How 
much? 

Multitude. Quantity made up of distinct parts; 
also that form of quantity which answers the ques- 
tion, How many? 

Unit. A single thing, either a whole or a part. 

Number. One, or more, or less; also an expres- 
sion for Quantity. 

Integral Number. An expression for one or 
more whole or entire units. 

Fractional Number. An expression for one 
part of a unit, or more than one equal parts of a 
unit. 

Abstract Number. A number taken without 
reference to substance, time, space, or their prop- 
erties. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 295 

Concrete Number. A number applied to sub- 
stance, time, space, or their properties. 

Even Number. One wbicb can be divided by 
two without a fractional quotient. 

Odd Number. One which cannot be divided 
by two without a fractional quotient. 

Simple Number. One in which the units ex- 
pressed, are all of the same value. 

Compound Number. One in which the units 
expressed are of different values. 

Cardinal Number. One used to denote multi- 
tude, or how many. 

Ordinal Number. One used to denote the 
order or rank of an object. 

Prime Number. An integral number which 
can be divided by no other integral number than 
itself and unity without a fractional quotient. 

Rcmarh. There is no term in Mathematics 
which has had so many bungling, worthless defini- 
tions, as this. 

Ray's definition: "A prime number is one that can only be 
exactly divided by itself and unity." Since every number can 
be exactly divided by every other, with either an integral or 
fractional quotient, there is uo prime number according to this 
definition. 

Again, in Ray's Higher Arithmetic, we find this ; "A prime 
number is one that can be exactly divided by no other whole 
number but itself and unity." Since every whole number will 
exactly divide every other number whether fractional or integral, 
there can be no prime number according to this definition ; 
moreover, the grammatical sequence of l)ut to other, i?, to say 
the least, inharmonious. 

Again, Thompson's definition is still worse : '• A prime num- 
ber is one which cannot be produced by multiplying any two or 
more numbers together, or which cannot be exactly divided Vjy 
any whole number except a unit and itself." Since every num- 
ber can be produced by multiplying itself by unity, or some in- 
tegral number by some fractional number, there is no prime 
number according to Thompson. 

Loomis' definition involves the same absurdity. 

Leach & Swan's definition is passable. 

Davies' definition is the best, most simple and concise. 



296 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



Ratioxal Number. One whose exact root can 
be expressed by figures. 

Surd Number. One wbose exact root cannot 
be expressed by figures. 

42. 

Classes. Results of arrangement according to 
a given plan. 

Abstract Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which makes use of abstract numbers. 

Applied Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic 
which makes use of concrete numbers. 

Remark. Book-keeping and Mensuration may 
be mentioned as examples of Applied Arithmetic. 

Particular Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which makes use of figures to express par- 
ticular values. 

General Arithmetic. That form of Arithme- 
tic which makes use of letters to express general 
values. It is also called Algebra. 

Mental Arithmetic. That form of Arithmetic 
in which the operations are carried on entirely in 
the mind, without the use of visible characters. 

Written Arithmetic. That form of x\.rithmetic 
in which the operations are carried on by the aid 
of visible characters. 

Theoretical Arithmetic. That form of Arith- 
metic which investigates principles, and demon- 
strates rules; also, that gives a clear, connected, 
and systematized arrangement of all the principles 
and rules involved in the subject. 

43. 

Preliminaries. Preparatory processes. 



~n 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



297 



Fundamental Operations. Processes on which 
all others are based; or those without which no 
others can be performed. 

Applications. All other processes than the 
preliminary and fundamental. 

44. 

II. — NOTATION. 

fof Operation I !,^^^^^^^+' X' ^^O'^,,, 
^ I Diminution f-f, a)b(, ^ 



SignsJ of delation = 
of Deduction 



>, <• 



^ 



. of Aggregation ,(),[], | | • 

f History, 

I Forms, I, V, X, L, C, D, M, 
Roman) | Origin of each. 



Characters, 



Literal,) 



M 



Ratios of increase 



A 



Arabic ) 

or \ < 
.Figural,) 



l_Law3 of arrangement -{'2 
3 
' History, 
Forms, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0. 

{Significant, or digits. 
Zero, cypher, or naught. 
Separatrix. 
Origin of each, 
Radix, 
Fundamental Law. 



45. 



DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Notation. Any visible method of indicating 
operations or relations ; also of expressing quan- 
tity. 

Sign. A mark or combination of marks to in- 
dicate an operation or relation, deduction or ag- 
gregation. 

Operation. Process involved in a solution. 



298 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Increase. Augmentation. The act or result 
of making larger. 

Diminution. Decrease. The act or result of 
making less. 

Relation. Bearing. 

46. 

The sign -]- signifies add to; and is read, j)liiS' 
It has its origin in the fact that two lines thus 
placed seem to be the simplest manner of express- 
ing the act of addition. 

The sign X signifies multiply hy^ and is read 
into. It has its origin in tallying, or keeping 
accounts of several successive additions of the same 
quantity, which consists in crossing obliquely oth- 
er marks. This is an abridged or simplified form 
of tallying. 

The sign of contiguity, as represented in ab, is 
used only in letters, or in Algebra. 

The sign ()", or the exponent, signifies that the 
quantity immediately before it, or the quantity 
contained in the parenthesis to which it is attached, 
is to be multiplied by itself a number of times, one 
less, than there are units in the sign. 

The sign — signifies subtract from^ and is read 
minus. It seems to have originated in the sign 
-|- ; one of the marks having been taken away, 
suggesting the idea of subtraction ; and the mark 
left, a difference. 

The sign ■— signifies divide hy; and is read, 
divided hy. Its origin is plainly, that of dividing 
or separating one line into two parts, by the use 
of another. 



THEORETICAL AllITHMETlC. 299 

The sign ^ signifies divide hy^ or the result of 
having divided one quantity by another, and is 
read over^ as a over b ;*or in this example, If, sev- 
enteen over thirteen. 

The sign a)b( signifies that the quantity at the 
right of the first curved line is to be divided by 
the quantity at the left. In Algebra the divisor 
is placed at the right of the line curving to right. 

The sign y^, or the radical sign, signifies that 
the square root of the quantity to which it is pre- 
fixed, is to be taken. If a figure is placed before 
the sign, then such a root is to be taken as is indi- 
cated by the figure, which is called the index. 

47. 

The sign = signifies equality^ and is read, is 
eq^iLol to. Its origin is found in the f\ict that it is 
the simplest method of expressing to the eye the 
idea of equality. 

The signs ]^<^ signify inequality, and are 
read is greater than, and is less than; the greater 
quantity being placed at the opening, and the less 
at the apex of the angle. 

The sign of ratio : is an abridged form of the 
sign of division. In the French form of writing 
the ratio, however, the divisor is placed before the 
sign, and the dividend after it. It is read, as, as, 
in the first couplet and to in the second. 

The sign of proportion : : is an abridged form 
of the sign of equality ; the extremities only of the 
line being used. It is read so is. 

The sign of deduction .'. seems to have its ori- 
gin in the fact that there are three terms in a syb 



300 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

logism ; the two first being true the third must 
follow. It is read therefore. 

48.' 

The signs of aggregation are the bar , which 

signifies that the numbers over which it is placed 
are to be taken together as one number; also, the 
parenthesis, (); the brackets, []; and the braces, 
I I , which signify that the quantities enclosed by 
them respectively are to be taken together, as one 
quantity. 

Remark. The use of technicalities not hitherto 
defined in this work, for the explanation of the 
signs, is not strictly philosophical ; but as this 
classification is only used in reviews, and as the 
signs are an inseparable part of Notation, the de- 
mands of the case seem to warrant this departure 
from rigid philosophical usage, in the arrange- 
ment. 

49. 

Characters. Any written or visible forms used 
to express numbers. 

Verbal Characters, or Verbal Notation, 
Visible words used to express numbers. 

Roman Notation. That notation which makes 
use of seven Capital Letters, to express numbers. 

Arabic Notation. That which makes use of 
ten figures to express numbers ; also a separatrix. 

50. 
History of the Roman Notation. Notwith- 
standing the Roman alphabet seems to be but a 
modification of the Greek alphabet, the Romans 
adopted an entirely difi"erent notation for numbers. 



•THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 301 

While the Greek notation makes use of the letters 
in their original order and numher to express 
numbers, the Roman notation, in part, seems to 
have been in use before the Eoman people adopt- 
ed the Greek letters or formed an alphabet at all, 
as their origin will show. The several capital let- 
ters, which more nearly corresponded to the origi- 
nal marks of the notation, were subsequently 
adopted. 

Origin of the Eoman Characters. In count- 
ing, or in keeping an account, it is obvious that 
one or more vertical lines is as simple a method as 
could be adopted for the first few units. The let- 
ter I was afterwards used as most nearly resem- 
bling such a vertical line. 

When the number equal to the fingers and 
thumbs on both hands had been reached, it was 
natural and easy to cross the vertical lines signi- 
fying ten. In transferring this method of tally- 
ing, or of keeping accounts, it was after a while 
discovered that a simple cross would answer as 
well as all the marks of the original tally. Hence 
a cross was adopted for ten, and afterwards an X 
for the cross. 

Either half of the cross was used for five, but 
the letter V, corresponding to the upper half, was 
finally adopted. 

The initial of Centum, which signifies one hun- 
dred, was adopted, after the introduction of the 
alphabet, to save the trouble of writing ten crosses 
or X's. 

Either half of the letter C in its angular form C 



302 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

was used to represent fifty ; but since tlie letter L 
corresponds to the lower half it was finally adopted. 

The initial of Mille, which signifies one thou- 
sand, was also used to represent one thousand. 
Following the law of taking halves, a half of this 
letter was taken for five hundred. It was finally 
supplanted by the letter D, the letter which 
seemed most nearly to correspond to it. 

Katio of Increase. From the origin of these 
characters it is seen that they increase in the 
alternatino: ratio of five and two. 

Laws of Arrangement. 1st. A letter, not of 
greater value, being placed after another gives the 
sum of the values represented by the letters sepa- 
rately. 

2d. A letter of less value being placed before 
another, gives the difference of the values repre- 
sented by the two letters standing separately. 

3d. A horizontal line drawn over any letter or 
letters increases their value one thousand times. 

51. 

History of the Arabic Notation. The Ara- 
bic figures were introduced into Europe during 
the tenth century, by the Crusaders. From the 
Arabic these figures have been traced to the sacred 
books of the Brahmins in India. The Brahmins 
claim that they are a gift of the god Brahma. 
They are probably the invention of some inge- 
nious priest of that heathen deity. 

Origin of the Figures. In keeping accounts, 
one mark would naturally represent one. Two 
horizontal marks with a connecting line would 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 303 

stand for two, thus : '^, Three horizontal marks 
with connecting lines would stand for three, thus : 
3 3 a^<i four marks, either arranged in the form 
of a square or triangle, would stand for four, thus : 
n, 4'' Five marks in this form ^ was the original 
figure five of this notation. Six marks, thus : 5? 
the original figure six. The figure eight was made 
by placing two squares near each other, thus: ^; 
and seven, by omitting one of these marks, thus: 
3; i^ine by adding one more mark to the figure 
eight, thus : H. The zero was originally a circle, 
and seems to have been suggested from counting 
around the fingers and thumbs, as held in a circu- 
lar position. Hence once around was denoted by 
the figure 1, and 0. Twice around by 2 and 0, 
and so on. 

From this last arrangement seems to have been 
suggested the law of the notation, in which its 
superior utility consists. For, by placing any 
other figure in the place of the zero to make the 
numbers between ten and twenty, we have the law 
established. 

Separatrix. a mark used in the Arabic nota- 
tion to separate units from tenths, in other words, 
integers from decimal fractions. 

Remark. The separatrix is always written, or 
supposed to be written, at the right of the unit's 
place. Though not called a figure, it is still the 
most important character in the notation. 

Radix of the Arabic Notation. The number 
expressing the number of times the value of any 
figure is increased or diminished as it is removed 



304 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

one place to the left or right, to or from the sepa- 
ratrix. It is ten. 

Fundamental Law of the Arabic Notation. 
Every significant figure has its value multiplied 
by ten every time it is removed to the left, towards 
or away from the separatrix; and divided by ten 
every time it is removed one place to the right, 
towards or away from the separatrix. 

52. 

Remarh \st. Figures at the right of the sepa- 
ratrix express, obviously, by the law of the nota- 
tion, fractional quantities; as tenths, hundredths, 
etc. Such figures are called decimal figures, and 
the quantities expressed by them are called deci- 
mals, or decimal fractions. 

Remark 2d. The removal of figures is often 
accomplished relatively by changing the place of 
the separatrix. This can also be done in whole 
numbers, by annexing cyphers or other figures; 
and in the fractional figures by interposing cyphers 
or other figures between the separatrix and the 
given figures. 

Simple value of a Figure. Its worth when 
standing in the first place at the left of the sepa- 
ratrix. 

Local Value of a Figure. Its simple value 
multiplied or divided by such a power of ten as is 
indicated by the order of the place that the figure 
occupies at the left or right of the place of unity. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 305 

53. 
III. NUMERATION. 

Orders. — Units, Tens, Hundreds, Thousands, etc. 

Periods. — LFnits, Tliousands, Millions, Billions, etc. 

\r .■ 1 i French. 
JSational, -^ -r, ,. , 
' j Lnglisn. 



Methods, <; Practical, ] rj^l^f;^^"'^- 

I Tw • J by Tens. 

(^ Derived, ] by Hundreds, etc. 



54. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Numeration. Any method of expressing the 
values of figures in words. 

Orders. Places occupied by the several figures 
beins: counted towards the left and ris-ht from 
the separatrix. 

Units. The first order, at the left of the separ- 
atrix ; also, the first order of integral numbers or 
integers. 

Tens. The second order of integers. 

Hundreds. The third order of integers. 

Tenths. The first order at the right of the 
separatrix; also the first order of decimal fractions. 

Hundredths. The second order of decimal 
fractions. 

Periods. Groups of orders, named and used to 
facilitate numeration. 

French Method. That method of numeration 
in which three orders constitute a period. 

English Method. That in which six orders 
constitute a period. 

Remarh. The names of the orders in both 
methods are the same as fir as the ninth, or hun- 
dreds of millions ; after which they take different 



306 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

names, the tenth being called in the French meth- 
od, billions, and in the English method, thousands 
of millions. 

55. 

Names of the Periods. — 1st, Uaits. 2d, Thousands. 3d, 
Millions, -ith, Billions. 6th, Trillions. 6th, Quadrillions. 7th, 
Quintillions. 8th, Sextillions. 9th, Septillions. 10th. Octil- 
lions. 11th, Nonillions. 12th, Decillions. 13th, Undecillions. 
14th, Duodecillions. 15th, Tridecillions. 16th, Quadrodecil- 
lions. 17th, Quindecillions. 18th, Sexdecillions. 19th, Septo- 
dccillions. 20th, Octodecillions. 21st, Xonodecillions. 22d. 
Vingintillions. 23d, Unvingintillions. 24th, Duo-vingintil- 
lions, etc. 32d, Trigintillions. 42d, Quadrogintillions, 52d, 
Quingintillions. 62d, Sexagintillions. 72d, Septuagintillions. 
82d, Octogintillions. 92d, Ninogintillions. 102d, Centillions. 
103d, Uncentillions. 104tb, Duocentillions, etc. 202d, Duo- 
centillions, etc. 1002d, Millillions, etc. 

Derived Methods of Reading Numbers. These 
are readings with the assumption of some other 
order than units as the base. 

Example. — 304.06 may be read as tens, thus : 
thirty tens, and four hundred and six thousandths 
of a ten. The same number may be read as 
tenths, thus : three thousand and forty tenths^ and 
six tenths of a tenth. 

56. 

TOPIC LIST FOR DISCUSSION OF FUNDAMENTAL 
OPERATION. 

1. Definition. 

2. Terms, and definitions. 

3. Signs — form, signification, reading. 

4. Rules, Demonstrations. 

5. Proofs, Demonstrations. 

6. Comparison with other operations 

7. Contractions, Demonstrations. 

8. Use of negative quantities. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 307 

Remarh. The four fundamental operations may 
each be discussed very thoroughly by following 
this Topic List as a guide in the investigation. 
I shall omit many of the most obvious considera- 
tions in my discussion, as these can be obtained 
from all Arithmetics. Pupils, however, should be 
required in these discussions to reach every point, 
whether obvious or obscure. 

57. 

DISCUSSION OF ADDITION. 

5. Proof 1st. Add the columns downwards. 

Proof 2d. Reject the Nines from each quan- 
tity, also from these excesses so obtained, also 
from the sum of the quantities; then, if the ex- 
cess of the excesses of the several quantities is 
equal to the excess of the sum of the several 
quantities, the work is supposed to be right. 

Demonstration. Since by the sixth Theorem — 
Kay's Algebras — the difference of the same powers 
of any two numbers is divisible without a fraction- 
al quotient, by the difference of the numbers, any 
power of ten, minus any power of one, is divisible 
by ten minus one. In other words, any power of 
ten is one greater than a multiple of nine. This 
may be expressed thus : 

(10)'^ — (1)'' is divisible by 10 — 1 without a 
fractional quotient, or (10)° — 1 is divisible by 9, 
without a fractional quotient. 

But if a unit of any integral order gives one for 
a remainder, when divided by nine, then any fig- 
ure in any order will give itself for a remainder 
when its local value is divided by nine. Hence 



308 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

the figures expressing any integral quantity will 
express so many remainders, when the quantity is 
separated into the parts expressed by the local 
values of the several figures used to express it, and 
each part is divided by nine. Now if the sum of 
these figures, or remainders, be divided by nine, 
the true remainder for the whole quantity will be 
obtained. Thus, 7896, separated into parts as 
described, gives 

7000 and 7 remainder, 
800 and 8 " 

90 and 9 " 

6 and 6 " 

The true remainder from the given quantity is 
thus obtained by rejecting the nines from these 
figures, either as they stand in the vertical column 
or in the given quantity. 

58. 
One example will suffice to show the process of 
Rejecting Nines, and of proving addition by this 
process. 

EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION BY REJECTING 

NINES. 

r7896 
Quantities, ■] 4567 4 5- Excesses 
(3864 



Sum, 16327 



from the excesses. 



1 final excess, \ /^l'^ ^he sum. 
Process. First quantity. 6-|-8=14, which 
gives 5 as an excess, 5-[-7=12, which gives 3 as 
an excess. 3 is placed in the column of excesses. 
It will be noticed that no attention is paid to the 
figure 9. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 309 

Second quantift/. 7-(-6=il3; 4, excess. It will 
be noticed that no attention is given to 4 and 5, 
as they are equal to nine. 

Third quantify/. 4-|-6=10 ; 1, excess. l-|-8 
=9, hence 3 is the excess of the third quantity. 
Rejecting nine from these excesses, we have 1 for 
a final excess. Rejecting nine from the sum of the 
quantities, which is done by simply noticing that 
7-|-2=:9 and 3-|-6=9, 1 remains as the excess of 
the sum of the quantities. This being equal to 
the final excess of the quantities as before obtained, 
the work is supposed to be right. 

The concludinsr link in the chain of demonstra- 
tion is this: Since we have found the remainders 
of the several quantities, when divided by nine, to 
give a final remainder equal to the remainder from 
the sum of the several quantities, the sum is sup- 
posed to be correct. 

Remark 1st. Any other figure would answer 
as well as 9 for this form of proof, save that 9 
gives us its remainder more readily by this meth- 
od of rejection, than other figures would their re- 
mainder, by the process of division. 

Remarh 2d. This property of nine, viz.: that 
it will divide any number laitli the same remainder., 
as that which the sum of the figures., expressing the 
number gives., ivhen divided by nine., results obvi- 
ously from its being one less than the radix of the 
notation. If the radix were eight, seven would 
have the same property. 



310 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



59. 

Proof 3d. Reject the Elevens from diflfer- 
ence of the sums of the alternate figures in the 
several quantities ; also from the difference of the 
sums of the alternate figures in the sum of the 
several quantities ; then if the excess of the ex- 
cesses, from the several quantities, is equal to the 
excess of the sum of the quantities, the work is 
supposed to be right. 

Demonstration. By theorem 8th, Ray's Alge- 
bras, the sum of the same odd powers of two 
quantities is divisible without a fractional quotient 
by the sum of the quantities. Hence (10)°-]-l° 
is divisible by lO-f-l, or 11, when n is an odd 
number. Then lO-fl, 1000+1, 100,000-f 1, etc., 
are divisible by 11 ; in other words, the odd pow- 
ers of ten lack one of being divisible by 11, or give 
— 1 for a remainder. If the figure 1 in all the odd 
places taken in its local values gives — 1 for re- 
mainders, then any other figure will give itself 
with the minus sign for a remainder, — i. e., as 10, 
1000, 100,000, or any other odd power of 10 gives 
-^1 for remainders. 20, 2000, 200,000, etc., will 
give — 2 for remainders, when divided by 11. 
Hence every figure in any odd place may be taken 
with the minus sign, for the remainder, when its 
own local value is divided by 11. 

In a similar manner, by Theorem 7th, Ray's 
Algebras, it may be proved that each figure in 
the even places will give itself with the plus sign 
for a remainder, when its local value is divided 
by 11. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



311 



Now if the sitms of these two series of remain- 
ders are equal to each other, they will cancel each 
other, and there will be no remainder when the 
quantity which the figures express is divided by 
11 ; or if these sums are not equal, their differ- 
ence gives the same remainder as the quantity 
which they express gives when divided by 11. If 
there should be an excess of the negative figures, 
the true remainder will be obtained by subtracting 
that excess from 11. Such being the case, we can 
add the two sums of alternate figures, and find the 
difference of the two sums, remembering that the 
series of figures in the odd places give minus re- 
mainders. 

This process is much abridged, by subtracting 
the left hand figure of each quantity from the next, 
and the resulting remainder, from the next figure, 
and so on. The final remainder will always be 
the remainder with the proper signs. 



60. 

EXAMPLE FOR PROVING ADDITION BY THE 
REJECTION OF ELEVENS. 



Quantities, 





Sum, 66874 5 final excess, | fZ \Z7:: 

Taking the first quantity: 8—7=1, 9—1=8, 

6 — 8= — 2 the excess. 

Taking the second quantity. 8 — 5=3, 7 — 3=4, 

3— 4=— 1, 1— (— 1)=:2. 
14 



312 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Taking the third quantity: 0—2=:— 2, 6— (—2) 

Taking the fourth quantity: 1 — 4z=: — 3. 
Then the sum of these excesses, arranged at the 
right of their respective quantities, is -f^. 

Taking the sum of the quantities: 6 — 6=0, 

8— 0=z + 8, 7— 8=— 1, 4— (— l)r= + 5. 



61. 



Demonstration of this method of finding the 
difference of the sums of alternate digits. 

Let a, b, c, di^four figures expressing any quan- 
tity, including four orders. 

Then b — a, c — (a — b), d — [c — (b — a)] will 
represent the several steps of the subtraction. 
The last quantity, being reduced, so that each 
letter shall have its essential sign, and then ar- 
ranged, the sesult will be d — c-f-b — a, which cor- 
responds to the demands of the case. 

Again, take an odd number of letters repre- 
senting the figures standing in the several orders, 
perform a similar operation, and the result will 
also correspond with that obtained by subtracting 
the sum of the figures in the even places from the 
sum of the figures in the odd places. 

Sclioliuin. It will be noticed that in those 
quantities expressed by an even number of figures, 
that the process of subtraction must commence at 
the left, or the excess obtained will be affected 
with the wrong sign. 



l^ 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 313 

62. 

Comparison of addition with other fundamental 
operations. 

1st, It is similar to multiplication ; both being 
operations of increase. 

2d. It is the opposite of subtraction. 

3d. It is the indirect opposite of division. 

63. 

Contractions. 1st. The addition of two or 
more columns at once. 

2d. Multiplication is but a contraction of addi- 
tion, in the case in which the quantities to be 
added are alike. 



64. 



Use of Negative Quantities. • 

Remark Isf. The Teacher will do well to give 
his classes practice in the negative quantities un- 
der all the fundamental rules. 

Remark 2d. My limits will not permit the 
discussion of the other fundamental operations; 
but the discussion becomes more interesting as the 
class proceeds, from one to the other, in order. 

Remark 3d. The contractions in multiplication 
and division are worthy of close study; and de- 
mand thorough demonstration, each of them. 
Leach & Swan have given a better variety of such 
^contractions than other authors. 



314 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



65. 



COMPOUND NUMBERS. 



- < 



Measure, - 



I 



Solid, 



Terms, — Simple Numbers, D(?nominate Numbers. 

(National,) f Tables, [taining. 

^Currency, •< State, >- ^ Standard unit, and means of ob- 
( Foreign, ) Coins — Gold, Silver, Citppcr, 

[ Comparison of each with others. 
( Avoirdupois, \ { Tables, 
Weight, •< Apothecaries,)- -j iJses, [ing. 

(Troy. J I Standard unit, means of obtain- 

(. Comparison of each with others. 
'Linear — Long, Cloth, ^ f Tables, 

Superficial — Square, Land, ] Uses, 

Cubical, )■ \ Standard unit and 

^'■y' ( Wine I ' ^^^ ™^''^°^ '^^ ^^' 

Tables, 

Standard unit, means of obtaining it. 

\ Addition, "J f Rules, 

( Multiplication, ' | and 
Subtraction, ^ J Demonstrations. 
Division, ( | Proofs, 

Ascending, and 

Descending, J [Demonstrations. 



J j taining. 



Comparison. 



. Time, 



Operations, 



Jdi 



Increase, 

imintition, 
Reduction, 



Remark. All the standard units are determined, 
directly or indirectly, from the length of the day 
or the time of a revolution of the Earth on its 
axis, as ascertained by astronomical observation. 
A pendulum, beating seconds, has a certain length. 
A linear foot is now determined by the pendulum. 
Dry and liquid measures are determined by the 
number of solid feet or inches. A cubic foot of 
pure water weighs 1000 ounces, and the standard 
pound is thus determined. 

Hence it is seen that any variation in the length 
of the day will cause a variation in all the denomi- 
nations, of every kind. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



315 



66. 
COMMON FRACTIONS. 

PEELIMINARIES. 



Numbers, 



r Prime, 
[ Composite, 

Properties, 



f Rules for 
Greatest ) i integers, 
Common V ^ ^^^^ ^^^ 
Divisor. ) I Fractions, 



Least 
Common 
Multiple, 



.Rule; 

Intej 



for I 
en, i 



^ Terms— Unit, Integer, Factor, Reciprocal, Root. 
Absolute, 
<-,, ; <■ Relative. 

Classes, {^ . (Multiple, 

Power. 
fl,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,11, 12. 

(Demonstration of the properties of each 
number. Reinarh. — Properties, of 9 and 
11, depend on their relation to the radix, 
10. 
r Rules I by inspection, 
I ^"'^^' I by division. 
tactoriDg, -j Scholium.— Use the primes no further than the 
[ square root of the number to be resolved. Demon- 
stration 

by primes, 

by division. Demonstration. 

Divide the G. C. D. of numerators by 

the L. C. M. of denominators. 

Demonstration. 

u • \ 1st. 

by primes, j ^^^ 

by division. Demonstration. 

J, . ^ f Divide the L.C. M. of numerators by 

Kuie lor , jj^g Q^ (^ ^ ^^ denominators. 

fractions, ) rw . „,• 

^ (^Demonstration. 

ESSENTIALS. 

Terms, — Numerator, Denominator. 
p, j as to value — Proper, Improper, and Mixed Numbers. 

Classes, ^ ,jg ^^ form — Simple, Compound, Complex. 

(Equal to "j 
Greater than )■ Unity. 
Less than j 
r, • r -p I- . rNumerator=Dividend, 

Comparison of Fraction I Denominator=Divisor 

with Division, S \value-Quotient. 

Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Demonstrations. 
OPERATIONS. 

f Integers or mixed numbers to fractions, 
I Fractions to integers or mixed numbers, 
I Fractions to lower or h'gher terms, 
■j Compound Fractions to Simple, 
I Complex Fractions to Simple, 
I Fractions to equivalent fractions, with C. D^ 
[Fractions to eq. Frac. with L. C. D. 



Rule for 



Reduction of 

Fractions of 

Simple Number; 



J 



316 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



f Addition, — S ilbtraction. 
Increase "] | -.r l,,•r^l;«of; >r, ^ ^Integers by fractions, 



urease -ir i.- i- i.- \ /-xui-cjicia uv i j.iwh-juo, 

;ind I \ ^^^^^'Vhc^^^on j ( v,^",;^^, iy integer/, 

Diminution, J I -rk-,.'l",„ ( 1 Fractions by fraction?, 

'J 1^ DiM.iun, J I Mixed No. by Mixed No. 

f Frnct. of one denomination to frac. of another, 

T, , .. ! Inteo;ers of different denominations to fraction 

Reduction -, c u- t, j • „►• 

. -p ^- ^ 1 I 01 higher denominations, 

^r r. ^^^ '*^° J ?• 'I Fractions of higher denomination to integers of 
of Compound \ ] ^ ■, " ^- ° 

TCiiinhpr? J lower denomination, 

[ Quantity of several denominations to fraction 

I, of another quantity. 



Numbers. 



67. 

DEriNITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

A CoMMox Fraction. A Fraction wliose nu- 
merator and denominator are both expressed. 

Prelimixapjes. Preparatory steps. 

Terms. Words not otherwise introduced in the 
classification. 

Unit. One, either integral or fractional. 

Integer. A whole number, or a number con- 
sisting only of entire units. 

Factor op a Number. A divisor which gives 
an integral quotient. 

Remark. Factors are more generally considered 
integers, unless otherwise designated. 

ReciproCxVL of a Number. The result of divid- 
ing unity by that number. This result is said to 
be the reciprocal of the given number. 

Remark. The reciprocal of a number may be 
obtained by changing it to the fractional form, if 
it be a mixed or integral number, and then invert- 
ing the fraction. 

Root of a Number. Any factor, whether frac- 
tional or integral, which being multiplied by itself 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 317 

shall produce a given number. Explanation. 
Such a factor of a number is called, if multiplied 
into itself once, its square root; twice, its cube 
root; thrice, its fourth root; and so on. 

Classes. Results of arrangement according to 
some given plan. 

Prime Number. Any integer which can only 
be divided by itself and unity without a fractional 
quotient. 

Absolute Prime. The same as a prime. 

Relative Primes. Integers which have no 
common integral factor, save unity. 

Composite Number. Any integer resulting 
from the product of other integers than itself and 
unity. 

Multiple of a Number. Any product, which 
results from taking a given number, either frac- 
tional or integral, an integral number of times. 
Such product is called a multiple of the given 
number. 

Po"wer of a Number. The result of takino; a 
number a given number of times as a factor. 

Explanation. A number taken once as a factor, 
is the number itself, and is the first power. A 
number taken twice as a factor, is multiplied, or is 
to be multiplied into itself once, and is the second 
power. A number taken three times as a factor 
is the third power, and so on. The nought power 
of every number is unity, or the result of dividing 
a number by itself. 

Remark. Pupils should be well drilled in primes 
and their poavers before commencing the study of 



318 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

the Least Common Multiple. It is a good plan 
for the teacher to call for the primes, in concert, 
from the class, and to notice which of the class 
can go the farthest in giving them. It is well for 
the class to give each prime twice in the concert 
exercise, that the slower pupils may learn them. 
The powers of the smaller primes should be learned 
by a similar method. No pupil should be per- 
mitted to do anything with Least Common Multi- 
ples till he thoroughly understands the nature of 
primes and powers. 

68. 

PROPERTIES OF NUMBERS. 

1 is the nought power of every number. 
1 is any power of itself. 

1 is any root of itself. 

1, used as a multiplier, does not increase the 
multiplicand. 

1, used as a divisor, does not diminish the divi- 
dend. 

2 is a factor of any integral number whose 
unit figure is divisible by 2, without a fractional 
quotient. 

Demonstration. Every integral number ex- 
pressed by more than one figure is made up of 
tens and units. The tens are divisible by 2 ; if 
the unit figure is also divisible by two without a 
fractional quotient, then the whole number is 
divisible by 2. 

3 will divide any number without a fractional 
quotient, the sum of whose figures it will divide 
in the same manner. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 319 

Explanation. The figures of any number are 
the figures used in writing tlie number. 

Remark. This property of three depends on 
its being a factor of 9. 

Remark. The properties of the other numbers 
are discussed in most Arithmetics, and my limits 
forbid my pursuing them further. 

The properties of nine and eleven, however, are 
discussed in section 58, page 310. 

Factoring. The process of separating numbers 
into their prime factors. 

Remarlc. Long and numerous drills must be 
given in factoring before commencing the study of 
the Greatest Common Divisor, and Least Common 
Multiple. The teacher will commence such drills 
by giving small numbers, and requiring the class 
to separate them by the mental process, and to 
give what power of each prime factor is contained 
in each given number. 

69. 

Demonstration of Scholium. Since every di- 
visor smaller than the square root of a number, 
must give a quotient larger than the square root, 
and every divisor larger than the square root must 
give a quotient smaller ; if every prime number 
smaller than the square root proves not to be a 
factor, no prime number larger can be, for the 
reason, as before stated, that it must give as a 
quotient one of the primes less than the root, 
which is impossible; as they have already been 

tried, and found not to be factors. 
14* 



320 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

70. 

Demonstration of Eule by division for finding 
tlie Greatest Common Divisor. 

The G-. C. D. of two numbers must be tlie same 
as that of the smaller number and the remainder 
after the smaller number has been taken out of 
the larger number as many times as possible. 

Illustration. Take the two lines A B 

C I I? D, apply the shorter to the longer; 

it is evident that after the shorter shall have been 
applied to the longer as many times as possible, 
that the greatest common divisor or measure of 
the two lines A B, and C I), must also divide or 
measure the difference E D, after it has exactly 
measured the line C E, which is but the line A B, 
repeated on the line C D. 

Since then the Gr. C. I), of the remainder after 
division of the larger number by the smaller, is 
the same as that of the two given numbers, if this 
remainder is not itself the G. C. D., it may be 
taken out of the smaller as many times as possible, 
and then the G. C. D. of what remains after this 
second division will be the G. C. D. of the less of 
the given numbers and the remainder, and if so, 
then of the two given numbers. This process of 
dividing the last divisor by the last remainder 
must evidently be continued till there is no re- 
mainder, then the last remainder, which is also 
the last divisor, is the G. C. D. of the two given 
numbers. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 321 

71. 
RULES FOR OBTAINING- L. C. M. BY PRIMES. 

1st. Multiply together the highest powers of 
each of the prime factors contained in any of the 
given quantities. 

Demonstration. The L. C. M. is the product of 
the highest powers of each of the prime factors, 
found in any of the given quantities; for it must 
contain as many of each kind of prime factor as 
any number contains, or it would be impossible to 
divide by that number. No more factors of any 
one kind can be taken out the L. C. M. than it 
contains; but if any given number should contain 
more of such factors than the L. C. M., in attempt- 
ing to divide the L. C. M. by such a number it 
would be attempting to take out more of one kind 
of prime factor than the L. C. M. contains, which 
would be impossible. Nor should the L. C. M. 
contain more of any one kind of prime factor than 
the largest number of such prime factor contained 
in any one of the given quantities, as such would 
obviously be superfluous. 

2d. Take the largest of the given numbers, mul- 
tiply it by such factors contained in the other 
numbers as are not provided for in the largest 
number, or by factors already taken from other 
numbers. 

Example. 12, 18, 20, 24, 50. 

By the first rule, 8 is the highest power of 2 
contained in any of the given numbers, nine is 
the highest power of three, 25 the highest power 
of 5, and there are no other prime factors in the 



1 
"1 



322 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

numbers, save 1, wliich does not affect the L.C. M. 
Hence 8x9x25 = 1800, =L. C. M., for it con- 
tains all the 2's in all the numbers, since it con- 
tains as many as there are in 24, which contains 
more than any other. So also 1800 contains all 
the 3's since it contains as many as 18, which has 
more than any other. So also of the 5's in 50. 
By the second rule I take 50, which contains one 
2 and two 5's, but 24 contains three 2's as factors, 
hence two of them are not provided for in 50, but 
must be by multiplying 50 by 4. Again, the 3 in 
24 is not yet provided for; this must also be mul- 
tiplied into the former product of 50 and 4. All 
the factors of 20 are provided for, but 18 has two 
3's, and as only one 3 has as yet been put into 
the L. C. M., another must be multiplied into it. 
Hence we now have for the L. C. M., 50x4x3x 
3=1800. 

2nd Example. 20, 30, 40, 50, 60. 

By the first rule we have 8x3x25 = 600 = L, 
C. M. 

By the second rule we have 60x5x2=600=L 
C. M. 

3d Example. 24, 34, 44, 54. 

By the first rule we have 8x27xllxl7=L. C. 
M. 

By the second rule we have 54x2x11x17x2 
=L. C. M. 

4th Example. 23, 33, 43, 53. 

By the first rule we have 3x11x23x43x53= 
L. C. M. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 323 

By the second rule we have 53x43x3x11x23 
= L. C. M. 

72. 

Demonstration of the rule for obtaining the L. 
C. M. by division. 

Take the numbers 6, 8, 9, 12, 15, 18, 20, 24, 25 ; 
divide these by 2, and we shall obtain the quotients 
and undivided numbers, 3, 4, 9, 6, 15, 9, 10, 12, 
25. Now this divisor 2 will answer for all the 
first powers of 2 contained in any of the given 
numbers; consequently those first powers of 2 are 
all rejected, and this divisor 2 is retained for them 
in the L. C. M. 

Dividing again by 2 we shall obtain the quo- 
tients and undivided numbers, 3, 2, 9, 3, 15, 9, 5, 
6, 25. This second divisor 2 will answer for all 
the second factors of 2 in any of the given num- 
bers. It is therefore retained, a« a factor of the 
L. C. M. Dividing again by 2 we obtain 3, 1, 9, 
3, 15, 9, 5, 3, 25. This third divisor 2 answers 
for all the third factors of 2 contained in any given 
numbers. Hence it is obvious that dividing by 
the several prime factors as long as two or more of 
the given numbers can be divided without a frac- 
tional quotient, is merely for the purpose of re- 
jecting superfluous factors, and retaining the 
necessary factors, for the L. C. M. 

Remark. How much easier and shorter is the 
process of selecting the necessary factors according 
to Rules 1st or 2nd than to reject the unnecessary 
factors, according to the Rule, by division. Ac- 
cording to Rule 1st the necessary factors are 8x9 



32i THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

X25^1800. According to Rule 2d they are 
25x8x9=1800. The L. C. M. is thus obtained 
at a glance, with scarcely any effort. 

Rcmarh. The skillful teacher will not permit 
his pupils to learn the E-ule by division at all ; or, 
if they have already learned it, he will drill them 
on the other rules till they will be glad to let it 
alone. 

73. 

ESSENTIALS. 

Terms of a Fraction. The numbers used to 
express it. 

Numerator. That term of a fraction which is 
written above the line, and expresses the number 
of parts taken, by the fraction. 

Denominator. That term of a fraction which 
is written under the line, and shows the number 
of parts into which the unit of which the fraction 
expresses a part, is taken. It also names the 
parts taken. 

74. 

PROPOSITIONS. 

1. Multiplying the numerator multiplies the 
fraction. 

2. Multiplying the denominator divides the 
fraction. 

3. Multiplying both terms by the same num- 
ber, does not alter the value of the fraction. 

4. Dividing the numerator divides the fraction. 

5. Dividing the denominator multiplies the 
fraction. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 325 

6. Dividing both terms by the same number 
does not alter the value of the fraction. 

DEMONSTRATIONS. 

Prop. 1. Because it increases the number of 
parts while their size remains the same. 

Prop. 2. Because it diminishes the size of the 
parts while their number remains the same ; and 
it diminishes the parts, because the unit is thus 
divided into a greater number of parts, and of 
course each part becomes as many times less, as 
the divisor is times greater. * 

Prop. 3. Because it increases the number of 
parts, as many times as it diminishes their size. 

Prop. 4. Because it diminishes the number of 
parts while their size remains the same. 

Prop. 5. Because it increases the size of the 
parts while the number remains the same ; and it 
increases the size of the parts because the unit is 
thus divided into a less number of parts ; each 
part being as many times greater as the divisor 
is times less. 

Prop. 6. Because it diminishes the number of 
the parts as many times as it increases their size. 

75. 

Keductiox. Change of form without changing 
the value. 

Remark. From want of room I shall only dis- 
cuss a few of the operations of fractions; and 
those, to show the application of the propositione 
in their demonstrations. 



326 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS TO LOWER TERMS. 

Demonstration^ Prop. 6. 

REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS TO HIGHER TERMS. 

Demonstration^ Prop. 3. 
REDUCTION OF COMPOUND FRACTIONS TO SIMPLE. 

Demonstration. Take ^ of |. 

Since multiplication is taking one number as 
many times as there are units or parts of a unit 
in another, taking f of | is a case of multiplica- 
tion; hence may be expressed thus: f X|. Then 
3 times | (Prop. 1,) is y, but since the multiplier 
is \ of 3, this product is four times too large, and 
must be divided by 4. But (Prop. 2.) y-f-4==^|. 
By observing the two operations it is seen that the 
numerators have been multiplied together for a 
new numerator, and the denominators for a new 
denominator. Hence the ordinary rule is demon- 
strated. 

76 

Remarh 1. Reduction of Complex Fractions 
to Simple is demonstrated in a similar manner, 
after having first shown that it is a case of division. 

Remarh 2d. In examining classes this may be 
considered a test question, " Why does dividing 
the denominator multiply the fraction?" Such an 
answer as this is often given, " Because it shows 
that the fraction is divided into a less number of 
parts;" or this, "Because it increases the parts:' 
or this, " Because the number of the parts is less, 
therefore they must be greater." All these an- 
swers are worthless, the latter, which is more fre- 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 327 

quently given, is absurd. This answer may be 
given, Because by dividing the denominator we 
divide the unit of which the fraction expresses a 
part, into a less number of parts : consequently, 
each one of the parts is of greater value. 

Remark. The analytical method of demonstrat- 
ing the operations of fractions should not be neg- 
lected. I will give one example of this method 
in division. Divide f by |. 

1_:_1 1 1-^-4 G 1-^1 6 4-^1 3X6 18 

± . J. 1. J. . ^ — u. ^ . (3 y. ^ . ^ — ^ J. 

|-^|=V-^5 = 4'^j==l^. By noticing the last 
steps of this process it is seen that they correspond 
to the ordinary rule for the division of one fraction 
by another ; viz : Invert the divisor and proceed 
as in multiplication. 

77. 

Remark od. The division of a mixed number 
by a mixed number without reducing them to im- 
proper fractions gives an excellent drill, and 
should not be omitted. Such an example as this 
for instance, 19|)3994f (, involves a difficulty that 
few scholars will surmount without help; for, in 
performing the division it is found that the divisor 
is not contained twice in 39, and if it is assumed 
that it is contained once the second partial quo- 
tient is 10. The difficulty may be overcome in 
two ways ; first assume that the divisor is contained 
twice in 39-j-to, which assumption holds, as the 
second nine is i^o of a unit standing in the place 
of the first nine. Secondly, assume that it is con- 
tained once in 39, thus making the first quotient 



^ 



i w..ui.i:.TlCAL ARITHMETIC. 



figure 1, then the second partial quotient will be 
10 ; the first figure of which being added to the 
former figure makes the first figure of the quotient 
2. as before. The second quotient figure will be 0. 

It is not claimed that this method of dividing 
one mixed number by another, is of any practical 
value in business operations ; only, that it gives a 
clearer view of the theory of the Arabic Notation ; 
and that it affords the means for an excellent drill 
in a class of apt scholars. 

Remark Atli. In reducing a fraction of a larger 
denomination to integers of lower denominations, 
a course is too often pursued which involves ab- 
surdity in the notation. For instance, if ^ of a 
mile is to be reduced to integers, the work is gen- 
erally performed thus, -^mx8=Tfur.=3t fur.x 
40=z'r rods==17^ rodsxl6ir:z:i^M't.=22i ft.xl2 
=11 'V inchesz=r4y inches. 

This is plainly a string of absurdities ; for 8 
times '•] of a mile is ^ of a mile, and not \* of a 
furlong. Again, 34 fur. X 40 is not equal to ^^^ 
rods, but is equal to 120-|-'|" furlongs. 

A better method is this : ^^m==:V fur.r=:3^ fur.^ 
^ fur.zzr^^" rodi=il7^ rods, ^ rod=i6i ft — 2'^i ft., 
2i ft.=: iy inch=:4^ inches ; then ^ milei==3 fur- 
longs, 17 rods, 2 feet, 43 inches. 

Remark bth. Nearly every operation in frac- 
tions admits of several difierent methods ; that of 
dividing one fraction by another admits of at 
least twenty different methods. It is an excellent 
plan to propose to a class to bring out all the dif- 
ferent methods which they can discover or invent 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



329 



for each operation ; also the demonstrations for 
the several riiethods. 

78. 
DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

Terms — Separatrix, Price, Cost, Quantity, Unity. 

r> 1- • • ( Notation — Ruin, 
rreliminanes, ■{ ,., . „ , 

' I JNumeration — Kule. 

Origin, 

No. of figures — method of determining. 

'Origin, 

Notation, Rule, 

Numeration, Rule, 
■{ Value: how determined, 
j fPure, > ( Single, 

I. Classes, < Mixed, 5 i Double, etc. 
r Imperfect, 
''Repetends, < fist, 

(.Perfect, i ^d, 



Terminal, -j 



^ I Circulating, 



^Reduction of 

Fractions of 
Simple Nos. 



Cora, to Dec. 
Dee. to Com. 
Decimal to lower terms, 
[Decimal to higher terms. 



13d, 
Uth. j 5- 



^ 



Increase — Addition, Multiplication, ) ( Rules, 
^ Diminution — Subtraction, Division, j ( Demonstration, 



Reduction of 
Fractiiins of 
Compound 
Numbers, 



Decimal of higher denomination to integers 
of loMer, 
■I Integers of lower denomination to decimal 

of higher, 
.One quantity to decimal of another. 

79. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Decimal Fractiox. A Fraction whose denom- 
inator is not expressed ; but is understood to be 
such a power of ten as is indicated by the number 
of figures at the right of the separatrix. 

Ciiticism. In consulting Ray's Higher Arithmetic, I find this 
definition of a decimal fraction : 

"A Decimal Fraction is one which derives its name from the 
Latin word decern, meaning ten; and is so called, because its 
denominator is always 1 with cyphers annexed; being either 10 
or the product of several lO's." 

Tliis detiiiitioii iswortlilcss hecanse it includes a larq-e class of 
common fractions. Read Prof. Davies, in his University Arith- 
metic — " A decimal fraction is one in wliicli the unit is divided 
accordino[ to the scale of tons." 



330 



TIILOIIETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



Remark. The separatrix is the most important 
character used in decimals, and no pains should 
be spared to impress this on the minds of pupils. 

Rule for Notation. 1st. Write the separatrix." 
2d. Determine the place of the given denomina- 
tion. 3d. Assume this place, so determined, as the 
place of units, and write the given quantity, as if 
whole numbers. 

Remark 1st. The difficulty in most rules for 
writing decimals is that the pupil is compelled to 
write them twice ; once, to obtain the correct num- 
ber and arrangement of figures, and again, to 
place them in proper relation to other decimals 
with which he may wish to combine them. By 
this rule he will write them where he wants them 
in the first instance. 

Remark 2d. In large classes of Teachers I have 
seldom found more than two or three individuals 
(frequently none) who were able to write decimals 
correctly. Take examples of these kinds, for in- 
stance : 

One hundred million ten-thousandths. 

Fifteen million fifteen thousand and fifteen 
hundred ten-millionths. 

Forty-five million forty-five thousand and forty- 
five hundred thousandths. 

Forty-five million forty-five thousand and forty- 
five hundred-thousandths. 

Remark 3(7. Such common fractions as to^oo and 
ff?>ooff> having denominators of many more figures 
than the numerator are the proper examples to 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 331 

test a class in reducing common fractions to deci- 
mals. It is not an uncommon thing for a class 
to obtain almost as many different results as it 
contains pupils, in consequence of the misplace- 
ment of the separatrix. A thorough teacher will 
pay particular attention to this matter. 

80. 

Demonstration of the rule for multiplication of 
decimals. 

Rule. Multiply as in entire numbers and point 
off as many figures from the right of the product 
as there are in both of the factors. 

Demonstration. Assume that both factors are 
entire numbers, then since removing the separatrix 
towards the left divides either of the factors, as 
many times by ten, as there are figures thus placed 
at the right of the separatrix; and since the pro- 
duct must be as many times divided by ten as both 
the factors, it follows that the rule is correct. 

81. 

Demonstration of the rule for the division of 
decimals. 

Rule. Divide as in whole numbers, and point 
off as many figures, at the right of the quotient, 
for decimals, as the decimal figures in the dividend 
exceed those in the divisor. 

Demonstration. Assume first that both dividend 
and divisor are whole numbers, then of course the 
quotient is also a whole number: but since divid- 
ing the dividend divides the quotient, and dividing 
the divisor multiplies the quotient, and since re- 



332 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



moving the separatrix towards the left divides 
either quantity as many times by ten as there are 
figures thus placed at the right of the separatrix, 
in each of the numbers, it follows then as many 
more times as the dividend has thus been divided 
than the divisor, so many times must the quotient 
be divided by ten; in other words, so many figures 
must be cut off from the right of the quotient as 
the dividend has been divided more times by ten 
than the divisor has been thus divided. 



82. 



RATIO. 



Terras — Antecedent, Consequent, Couplet, Value of Ratio. 
Signs- : « 



Relations, • 



of subtraction — how ranch greater? — Difference, 
of division— how many times greater? — Quotient, 
of involution, 
.of evolution. 

^as to arrangement, 
as to origin, 
as to combination, 
as to value, 



Comparison 

of Plnglish 

Ratio, 



Comparison 

of French 

Ratio, 



English, 
French. 
Direct, 
Inverse. 
Classes, ] „, ,^ ^^„,v.inni;r,n. \ Simple, 

Compound. 

of equality, 

of greater inequality, 

of less inequality. 

i Antecedent=Dividend. 
with Division, ■} Consequent=Divisor, 

( VaIue=Quotient. 

{Antecedent=Numerator. 
Consequent=Denominator. 
V;ilue=Viilue. 
{Antecedent^=l)ivis3r, 
Consequent=Dividond. 
Value=Quotient, 
i Antecedent=Denominator, 
with Fractions, ■} Conse.quent=Numerator, 
( Value-^Value. 

.Scholium, — Ratio can only exist between quantities of the samo 
kind. 

Rule for finding value of Ratio. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 333 

{English ) ^ 1. Ant. — Con?.xValue of Ratio. 

Ratio, ) ( 2. Cons. — Ant.— Value of Ratio. 

French I I 1. Ant.— Cons. -^Value of ,Ratio. 

Ratio, ) I 2. Cons. — Ant.XValue of Ratio. 

Geometric Series, 1 -.r', ' 
' ( V alue. 

Propositions, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 

83. 
DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Eatio. a combination of two or more terms in 
pairs, for the purpose of comparison by division. 

Remark. The result of such division is often 
called ratio; more correctly, it is the value of the 
ratio. 

Terms. The numbers between which the com- 
parison is instituted. 

Antecedent. The first or lefthand term of a 
pair comprised in a ratio. 

Consequent. The second or righthand term of 
the pair comprised in a ratio. 

Couplet. A pair of terms including an ante- 
cedent and consequent. 

Value of Katio. The quotient arising from 
dividing one term of a ratio by the other. 

Relations. Bearings. 

Relation as determined hi/ subtraction, answers to 
the question, How much greater is one number 
than another? It is the same as the difference. 

Relation as determined by division^ answers the 
question, How many times is one number greater 
than another? It is the same as the quotient. 

Relation as determined by involution or evolution 
answers the question. What power or root is one 
number of another? It is the same as the expo- 



334 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

nent or index of one number, when placed equal 
to another, as its power or root. 

English Ratio. That in which the antecedent 
is to be divided by the consequent. 

French Ratio. That in which the consequent 
is to be divided by the antecedent. 

Remark. It is not to be supposed that all Eng- 
lish mathematicians adopt what is called the Eng- 
lish Ratio, or that all French mathematicians use 
what is called the French Ratio. Davies seems 
first to have introduced the inverted or French 
ratio into American books. He did not follow 
the French author whose work he translated in 
this particular. Most works on Natural Science 
retain the old or English form, and in their ratios 
suppose that the first term is to be divided by the 
second. 

Several of the more recent Arithmetics have 
adopted the English Ratio, as Stoddard's, Dodd's, 
etc. 

84. 

Direct Ratio. That in which more requires 
more ; or less requires less. 

Inverse Ratio. That in which more requires 
less ; or less requires more. 

Remarh. Many arithmeticians reject this dis- 
tinction as useless. In my opinion, however, it 
affords a fine means of drill, in the discussion of 
problems in compound proportion. 

Simple Ratio. That involving but one couplet. 



^ T 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 335 

Compound Ratio. That involving two or more 
simple ratios, combined with the sign of multipli- 
cation. 

Ratio of Equality. That in which the terms 
are equal; or that in which the value is unity. 

Ratio of Greater Ixequality. That in which 
the value is greater than unity. 

Ratio of Less Inequality. That in which the 
value is less than unity. 

Reinarh. It will be noticed that a French Ra- 
tio of greater inequality may be identical with an 
English Ratio of less inequality. 

Series. A succession of terms, each of which 
is derived from one or more preceding terms by 
some known law\ 

Geometric Series. One in which each term is 
derived from the preceding term by a constant 
multiplier or divisor. It is sometimes called Con- 
tinued Proportion. 

Remark. This constant multiplier or divisor is 
equivalent to the value of any single ratio, or 
couplet comprised in the series. 

Propositions. The same as those for fractions, 
substituting the terms antecedent and consequent 
for numerator and denominator. 
15 



336 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



Signs,- 



Classes, 



as to origin. 



85. 

PROPORTION. 

Terms, — Proportional, ]\Iean Proportional, Last Proportional, 
Third Proportional, Fourth Proportional, Homologous, 
Analogous, Extremes, Means. 

} ] Signification, 
f I Reading. 
Direct, 
Inverse. 

i Simple, 
as to combination, -| Compound, 
( Conjoined. 

{First tcrm=First Antecedent=First Extreme. 
Second term=First Consequ.ont=First Mean. 
Third term=Second Antecedent=Sec'd ^lean. 
Fourth term=Sec'd Consequent— 2d Extreme, 
r First and Second=First Couplet, 
I First and Third=Antecedents, 
Names of ! First and Fourth=Extremes, 
Pairs of Terms, | Second and Third=Means, 

i Second and Fourth=ConsequentP, 
[Third and Fourth=Secoad Couplet, 
f Fandamental, Product of Extreme3=Pro(luct of Means. 



Names of 
Single Terms, 



Laws, ■ 



[Derived, 
Rules for statement. 
Methods of Solution, 



Product of Extremes-^one mean=other 
mean. [treme. 

2. Product of Means— ^one extreme=other ex- 
for Simple Proportion, 
for Compound Proportion. 

1. by Fundamental Law, 

2. by Ratio, 

3. by Cancellation. 

86. 



DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

Proportion. A combination of two equal ra- 
tios, with the sign of equality. 

Proportional. Any one of the terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Mean Proportional. One of two equal means 
in a proportion. 

Third Proportional. The fourth term of a 
proportion in which the means are equal. 

Remark. Such a proportion is often written 
with only three terms; thus: (4:8:16) = (4:8::8:16). 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 337 

Ho:mologous Terms. Those occupying the 
same place in two or more couplets. Two or more 
consequents are homologous terms ; also two or 
more antecedents, 

Analagous Terms. Such as are found in the 
same couplet. 

Extremes. The first and last terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Means. The second and third terms of a pro- 
portion. 

Signs. Symbols indicating a relation, operation 
or sequence. 

Sign of Eatio. (:). It is an abridged sign of 
division, and is read as in this Example, 4:6::8:12. 

Reading. — x\s 4 is to 6, so is 8 to 12. 

Sign of Equality, (::). It is an abridged form 
of the ordinary sign of equality, being the extrem- 
ities of the lines. It is read as in the example 
above, ''so is." 

Sign of Sequence or Deduction, (.*.). It is 
explained, section 47, page 299. 

Direct Proportion. That which involves di- 
rect ratios. 

Inverse Proportion. That which involves in- 
verse ratios. 

Simple Proportion. That which consists of 
simple ratios only. 

Compound Proportion. That which contains 
one or more compound ratios. 

Conjoined Proportion. That form of a com- 
pound proportion, in which each antecedent is 
equal in value to its consequent. 



338 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 

Remark. Conjoined proportion is used in re- 
ducing coins of the two countries through the 
medium of other countries. It is often called the 
Chain llule. 

Demonstration of fundamental law: 

1st. Take 6:8::12:1G. Expressing each ratio 
fractionally f =|^. Multiplying each fraction by 
6, we have 8=1^^'^; for, multiplying equals by 
equals the products will be equal. Again, multi- 
plying the last two equal quantities by 12, we 
have 8x12 = 16x6, which gives the product of the 
means, 8 and 12, equals the product of the ex- 
tremes, 6 and 16. 

2d. Take 6:8::12:16. Since every consequent 
is equal to its antecedent multiplied by the value 
of their ratio : 8 = 6x|; and 16 = 12xt. Hence 
we perceive that the extremes 6 and 16 contain 
the same factors as the means 8 and 12. 6.12 
and I being the factors of the extremes ; 6, f , and 
12, being the factors of the means. Since the 
products of equal factors are equals, and the 
means and extremes contain equal factors, the 
products of the extremes and means must be equal. 

Methods of Solution. By Ratio. Multiply 
the first term of the second couplet by the value 
of the ratio, obtained from the first couplet. By 
cancellation. Consider all antecedents, excepting 
the last, as denominators, all consequents and the 
last antecedent as numerators of a compound frac- 
tion. Then cancel as in the reduction of a com- 
pound fraction. 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



339 



87. 

PERCENTAGE. 

Terms, — Percent, Rate percent. 

Notation, — Rule, Consider hundredths as units, and write as in 

whole numbers. 
Sign C^). This sign has been recently introduced ; and is read 
percent. 

{1st, To find any given percent of a number, Rule. 
2d, To find what percent one No, is of another, Rule. 
3d, To find a No. when any percent of it is known, Rule. 
4th, To find a No. when any percent greater or less is 
given, Rule. 

88. 

GAIN AND LOSS. 

100 percent represents the No. on which any gain or 




the same general cases in percentage. 

89. 
COMMISSION. 

Remarh. — 100 percent represents the No. on which commission 
is charged. 

Agent, Commission-Merchant, Factor, Correspondent, 
Principal, Rate of Commission. 

1 2 
Cases, \ o /'=the same general cases in percentage. 

BROKERAGE. 

Consigner, Consignee, Bill of Exchange, Check, Draft, 

Bond, 
Rate of Brokerage, Proceeds or cost. 



Terms, 



Cases, \ o >-=the same general cases in percentage. 

UJ 

90. 

STOCKS. 

f Joint Stock Company, Stock, Share, Certificate, 
I Stockholders, Dividend, Rate of Dividend. 

I Par Value, Face, Nominal Value, Real Value, 
m ! Market Value, Rise and Fall. 

' |At par, Above par. Below par. At a premium. At a 
discount. Discount. 
Stock Broker, Stock Jobber, Investment, Commission, 
Rate of Commission, 
Cases,=Case3 in Percentage. 



340 THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 




91. 




INSURANCE. 




m ^ Policy, Premium, Underwriter, Out-Door, 
icrms, 1 j^.^j.^, ^j Insurance, Take a Risk, Cover. 






r Fire, 




1 Marine, 




Classes, ■{ Life, 




1 Health, 




l^ Stock, etc. 




Cases,=Cases in Percentage. 




TAXES. 




r^"-'^'^^') Property, 




^^^^^^^> j (Custom?! (Ad valorem, 1 

Mndirect, -| or >• -< Allowances, >• 

( Duties, ) ( Specific, ) 


Tare, 
3 Draft, 
1 Leakage, 
^ Breakage. 


C spq \ ^^^ specific duties, Rule, 
* "' 1 for ad valorem duties — Cases=Cases in percentage. 


92. 





INTEREST. 

f Princip!il=P. Compound Interest=C. I. 

Iiiier('st=A. Compound Amount— C. A. 

Quantities | Hatc=:R. Logarithm=Log. 

and ^ ( Years=T. 

Symbols, I Time in < Months=m. 
I I Day<=d. 

t Amount-A.=P+I. 
f Simple, 



Classes J Compound, 
^lasse., ^„„y.^i^ 

(.Mixed. 



l'8, Ga.. Ala., Mi., FL 
I 7, N. Y., S. Ca., Mi., Wis., lo. 
Legal Rates, < 5, La. 

I 10, Texas. 

I 6, In all other States and in U. S. Courts, 
Jiemark. 100 percent represents the principal. 



Rules, 



General. PxTxR=I. 

Speeial, ) (C_ni i d_ wP^J 

for 6 percent, ' ) p ^ ra\ 

Mo oX 2 ••■• 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



3U 



,1 Given, \ T. Rsquired, I. PxKxT=I. 
' ' R. 

P. 



c 



{^- (I 

2 Given, -< I. Required, R. Rale -ttttf ~77r—^' 

'^ ( P. T 

^ 3 Given, } I.' Required, T. Rule j tt-tt^T. 

-^ I.' , I 

''^ 4 Given, 4 R. Required, P. Rule j ^7^--=P. 

5 Given, -I R. Required, P. Rule - ■ Tf~'^=P. 

( A . A 

^Q Given, ■{ R. Required, I. Rule A— ——j^— 7^=1. 
J fp !{>l,-t-ivXl. 



,1 Given, 4 R. Required C A. Rule Px(l+R)T=C A. 
( T. 

2 Given, } R. Required C I. Rule PX(1+R)T— P.=C I. 
(T. 
i C A. c A. 

3 Given, ■{ R. Required P. Rule--— -^=P. 

5 It U+R)^ 

S/! tc'i. 

P. 






cu 1 ( U 1. CI 

4 Given, •< R. Required P. Rule , --=- — - 

T. (l+RjT_i 

c"a 



5 Given, \ P. Required R. Rule V^£^— 1=R. 
I T. •^ 

6 Given, -l P. Required T. Rule ^^g- ^ A-Log. P.^^^ 
R. Log. (14-R.) 



riven, -( 



342 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



93 
BANKING. 



Banks, 



Officers, 



of Issue, 
of Discount, 
of Deposit. 

Directors, 
President, 
Casiiicr, 
Tellers. 



Classes, 



Essentials, 



Persons, 



Negotiable, 
Non negotiable, 
Bank, 
of band. 

Signature, 
Date, 

Promise to pay, 
Value received. 

, Maker, 
J Payee, 
1 Holder; 
^ Endorser. 



Terms 



(Face, Protest, Payable on Demand, Payable on 
Time, Payable on Sigbt, Proceeds, Avails, Cost, 
Time to Run, Day of Maturity, Nominally Due, 
* Legally Due. 



Partial 
i Payments, 



/^^warA:.— Interest must not draw interest. 

, United States, 
Rules, -j Connecticut, 

^ Vermont. 

fFace of Note, A. 

I Avail or Cost, C. 

I Rate, R. 

^Quantities, «{ ( in Years — T. 

I Time, < in Months — m. 

I ( in Days — d. 

tBank Discount — D. 
True Discount,— I=PxRXT. 
Bank Discount,— D^AX^^XT. 

r 1. To find discount of a note. 

! AxRxT=D. 

2. To find proceeds of a note. 
A— AXRXT=C. 

3. To find face of a note for given 

C 

proceeds, =A. 

^ 1-RxT - 



Discount, -{ Classes, 



Cases of) 

• Bank [• 

Discount) 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 343 



Foreign, 
Classes, ■{ Domestic, 



Bills, 



94. 
EXCHANGE. 



Circular. 
Sight=Checkg, 
Time. 

Endorsements, j fj'gf^i'k. 
Acceptance. 
Rate, I'^^^^^'OT, 
' } against. 
Standard — Amount of pure gold or silver in coin. 
Reduction of ) ( direct, 
Currencies, i | circular=chain rule. 
j- English, ^ CGold 
I French, g?j\?^^ 

Foreign Coins, j German, [ I pi^tinum, 
Spanish, 
l^ Russian. J ^ 

95. 

INVOLUTION. 
(Degrees, 
P-". -iExponeat, | P"*;^,^. 

{Adding exponents multiplies the quantities. 
Subtracting exponents divides the quantities. 
Multiplying an exponent involves the quantity. 
Dividing an exponent evolves the quantity. 
{of 1. Every power of 1 is 1. 
of numbers less than 1. Powers, higher than 
the first, are less than the number, 
of 0th power of numbers. Always=l. 
P , ( Demonstration, 
^^^^®' \ Applications. 

96. 

EVOLUTION. 

r Degrees, 

«-'. iXk, 

(.Fractional Exponent. 
Propositions. The same as in Involution. 

iof 1. Every root of 1 is 1. 
of number less than 1. Every root higher than 
the first is greater than the number, 
of 0th root of numbers. Always=l. 

{(Geometrical, 
for Square root,) (Demonstration, -(Arithmetical, 
for Cube root, >- < (Algebraic, 

for any root, ) (Applications. 



15 



* 



344 



THEORETICAL ARITHMETIC. 



97. 

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. 

« 'IT- i.' 1 e • < Ascendinor, 
Arithmetical Series, \ i,^,^,^^;^^ 

( First term=a. 
Quantities ) | Last term=l. 

and >• ■{ Common difference— d. 
Symbols, ) | Number of terms=n. 
(. Sum of series=s. 
(a. 
,1 Given, -(n. Required 1. Rule, a-f d(n — 1)=1. 
Id. 
n. 
2 Given, -(1. Required a. Rule, 1— d(n — l)=n» 
Id. 

a. i_a 

Cases, { 3 Given, -In. Required d. Rule, -— j=d. 



%. 



1— a 



4 Given, h. Required n. Rule, — r^4-l=n. 
d. ^ 

5 Given, -<l. Required s. Rule, —r — =S, 



n. 



98. 



GEOMETRICAL PROGRESSION. 

Geometrical Series, j descending. 

C First term— a. 
Quantities | Last term=l. 
and ■{ Common llatio=r. 
Symbols. | Number of terms=n. 
I. Sum of serie3=s. 
a. 
^1 Given, -^r. Required 1. Rule, aXr'^-l=l. 
□. 

I. I 

2 Given, -^r. Required a. Rule, — —=^» 
n. ^^ 



Cases, ■{ 3 Given, -^a. Required r. Rule, 

In. 
1. 



n-1 



V -=r. 



TV/ J. ^ 

4 Given, -(a. Required s. Rule, -^^-=S. 
^5 Given, -|r. Required s. ■ — — — =S. 






READING AND SPEAKING WITH 
GESTICULATION. 



INTRODUCTION. 



It is universally conceded, that no branch is so 
mucli neo;lected in our common schools as readins:. 
Resulting from this abuse there is more, vastly 
more, disagreeable reading and speaking, even 
among professional men, whose habits, in this par- 
ticular, are for the most part fixed in their primary 
instruction, than illogical thinking or false reason- 
ing. Yet there is less being done by leading 
Educators, or by those guardians of our public 
schools, the School Examiners, either in the way 
of scrutiny or remonstrance, in this branch, than 
in any other of the common branches. 

It becomes the true Teacher, and especially 
such an one as may have the training of Teachers, 
to give his best efforts to this subject. I shall en- 
deavor to do so. Amid the avalanches of books for 
reading and declamation that overwhelm us, not 
one that I have examined presents a just and 
appropriate arrangement of the subject, and much 
less a systematic plan of teaching it, e. i., so simple 
as to be available in our common schools, and so 
thorough as to meet the demands of the subject. 

(347) 



348 INTRODUCTION. 

If I succeed no better than my numerous prede- 
cessors, it will not be for want of attention to the 
subject, or of experience in teaching it, or of a 
determination to accomplish what is required. 

The Objects to be aimed at in the study of 
Elocution, and of course in teaching it, are 

1st. The Acquisition of General Knowledge, 

It may be said, that good vocal delivery is not 
necessary in this point of view. I answer, that he 
who can make others appreciate the sense and 
scope of an author, will surely be most likely, him- 
self, to comprehend the author, and that in the 
effort to impress others with ideas read or declaim- 
ed, he himself receives the deepest impression. 

2d. The Acquisition of a Love for Reading. 

It is a complaint on the part of many parents 
that their children have no love for their books. 
Though the difficulty lies chiefly with the parents 
themselves, in not supplying their children with 
books and papers suitable for their age, and ad- 
vancement; yet the proper training of the voice, 
and with it the mind — for the former is impossible 
without the latter — is an efficient means for incit- 
ing children and youth to read for the pleasure it 
affords them. Show me a "good reader" and I 
will show you a person that has become so, not so 
much by class drill, or by self-training in vocal 
delivery, as by silent and intelligent reading in- 
cited by it. 

3d. The Improvement of the Memory, Judg- 
ment, AND Taste. 

Though these faculties of the mind are more 



INTRODUCTION. 349 

particularly cultivated by proper training in vocal 
delivery, every other faculty is reached and im- 
proved. 

4th. Improvement of the Social Facui-ties. 

Instead of that vacuity, frivolity, and tendency 
to gossip and flirtation, which too generally pre- 
vail in social gatherings, we might, as the result 
of proper vocal culture, have such occasions en- 
livened and enriched, or, at least, varied with read- 
ings, recitations, personations, or the telling of 
anecdotes, with such spontaneous criticism, re- 
marks, additional readings, recitations, speeches, 
stories, and fun as they would provoke, all of which 
cultivated vocal delivery is calculated to improve 
and embellish. 

4th. Improvement of the Health. 

The person who learns to make correct use of 
the organs of speech, and with them of the entire 
system in finished vocal delivery, can hardly be 
afi'ected with any serious disease of the chest or 
spine. At any rate, the exercise is better than all 
the poisons, under the various names of nostrums, 
cordials, tonics, expectorants, panaceas, and cod 
liver oils, that have ever been consumed. White- 
field could " drive ofi" a fever by a good pulpit 
sweat." The bronchitis can never lay aside a per- 
son who cultivates a good vocal delivery. Such a 
person may, with reasonably correct habits other- 
wise, defy the consumption, and all its concomi- 
tant evils. 

5th. A Graceful Carriage and Address. 

Many parents send their children to dancing 



350 INTRODUCTION. 

schools, at a great hazard of their morals, to im- 
prove their manners. A proper training in elocu- 
tion will accomplish the same object more directly, 
without any such risk. 

6th. A PREPARATION FOR PUBLIC LIFE. 

How many men of good abilities and superior 
culture otherwise, are comparatively inefficient and 
unsuccessful from improper training and use of 
their organs of speech. Audiences wearied, in- 
struction unimparted, justice unattained, real vir- 
tue and true benevolence unsustained, are some of 
the lamentably notorious effects of the pernicious 
and repulsive habits of a large class of public men 
in their elocution. 

7th. The Prevention and Correction of the 

FOLLOWING LIST OF IMPROPRIETIES. 

IMPROPRIETIES IN PERSON AND COUNTENANCE. 

1. Improper Walk to the Rostrum ; too much 
on the heel, too noisy, too stooping, too slow, too 
rapid. Improper attitude on floor or rostrum ; too 
nearly equal on both feet, too long on one foot, 
too frequently changing the position, too much 
bent over, shoulders too much drawn forward, 
chest too much contracted, too much wriggling and 
twisting, rocking, or weaving the body. 

2. Improper Bow; too much in the neck, too 
quick and snappish, too low, too familiar or disre- 
spectful, too much to one side, too stiff and formal. 

4. Improper Manner of Holding the Book or 
Manuscript; too much with both hands, too much 
before the face, too near the breast or abdomen. 



INTRODUCTION. 351 

too stiffly, so as not to admit of the ready turning 
of leaves or of gesticulation. 

5. Improper Position of the Head; too much 
forward, too much backward, too much on one 
side, too much throwing the hair back, too much 
nodding, too much shaking, too immovable. 

6. Improper Use of the Eyes ; too much out 
of the window, too much at the pillars or walls, 
too much towards the floor, too much at one indi- 
vidual in the audience, too much at one part of 
the audience, too much closed, too wide open, with 
too little interest or confidence in the audience. 

7. Improper Action of the Mouth ; too much 
closed, lips too near together, teeth too nearly shut, 
too much spitting. 

8. Improper Expression of Countenance; too 
"shame-faced," too stupid, too unvarying, too 
much lacking any expression, too little in accord- 
ance with the sentiment uttered. 

9. Improper Use of Hands and Fingers; too 
stiff and straight, too much clinched, behind the 
back, in the pockets, in the arm-hole of the vest, 
too much on the hip, fingers playing with each 
other or with the dress, or with buttons, watch 
chain, or pencil or string, stroking the face or 
beard, running the fingers through the hair. 

10. Improper Gesticulation ; too unfrequent, 
too frequent, too feeble, too violent, too periodical, 
too much with one hand, too much with both 
hands, too low, too much bending the arm at the 
elbow, gesticulating when looking on the book or 
manuscript, no gesticulation, unsuited to the senti- 



i 



352 INTRODUCTION. 

ment uttered, too soon or too late for the sentiment, 
too stiff, too angular, too mucli in straight lines 
out from the body, pointing to the ears, eyes, or 
other features, not being accompanied with the 
eyes, 

11. Improper Recognition of Individuals in 
the Audience ; with smiles not called for by the 
sentiment of the piece. 

12. Improper Manner of leaving the Kostrum, 
too hasty, too noisy, too impudent, too sneaking. 

IMPROPRIETIES OF BREATH AND VOICE. 

1. Improper Times of taking Breath ; in the 
midst of a syllable, in the midst of a word, where 
no pause is required^ after a sentence rather than 
before. 

2. Improper Method of taking Breath; too lit- 
tle at a time, with too much noise. 

3. Improper Use of Breath in producing Sound; 
too wasteful through harsh or impure tones. 

4. Improper Articulation ; too hurried, too 
careless, too indistinct, too particular on unimpor- 
tant words and unaccented syllables. 

5. Improper Pronunciation; wrong sound of 
vowels, wrong sound of consonants, accent placed 
on wrong syllables. 

6. Improper Pitch; too high, too low, too mo- 
notonous. 

7. Improper Force ; too feeble, too faltering, 
too feeble on unimportant words, too loud, too un- 
varying, too loud on unimportant words, diminu- 



-J 



INTRODUCTION. 353 

tion of force from the beginning to the end of 
every sentence. 

8. Improper Rate; too rapid, or too slow to 
suit the sentence or the piece. 

9. Improper Inflection on any word, phrase or 
sentence. 

10. Improper Emphasis ; on the wrong word 
or words, too little, too much, of the wrong kind, 
emphatic pause too short, emphatic pause too long, 
no emphatic pause. 

11. Improper Quality of Voice; too husky and 
impure in tone, too nasal, too guttural, too tremu- 
lous, too boisterous, too shrill; too much mumbling, 
too apathetic, too affected, too sniffling. 

12. Improper Ending of Sentences ; too ab- 
rupt, too drawling, with too much of a tone, too 
much alike. 

13. Improper Transition ; from one key to an- 
other, from one degree of rapidity to another, from 
one sentiment to another, from one paragraph to 
another, from one j)ersonation to another. 

14. Improper Style of Delivery; unfitted to 
the sentiment, too grave, too comic, too stern, too 
trifling, too sad, too joyful, too earnest, too unfeel- 
ing, too sarcastic, too sneering, too contemptuous, 
too ridiculous, too much of a sing-song, too mo- 
notonous. 

15. Improper Appearance; too bold, too timid, 
too pompous, too effeminate, too theatrical, too 
ministerial, too tame, too vehement, too conceited, 
with too much affectation, too simpering, too silly, 
too much embarrassed, too much frightened at 



I 



354 INTRODUCTION. 

your friends, too mucli affected with tlie blind 
staggers. 

16. Improper Personation ; too slight portrayal 
of character, character overdone, character not cor- 
rectly personated. 

17. Improper conception of the subject matter. 



ELOCUTION. 



1. 

Departments. 






Gesticulation. 

2. 
DEFINITION AND EXPLANATION. 

Elocution. The art of expressing thouglit and 
feeling, by means of articulate and gesticulate 
language. 

Explanation. By referring to tlie General Out- 
line of Grammar, page 39, it will be seen, that 
Natural Language is divided into Articulate and 
Gesticulate ; and that Artificial Language is divid- 
ed into Articulate and Written; Elocution com- 
prises both divisions of Natural Language ; but the 
first only, of Artificial Language. 

(355) 



356 ELOCUTION. 

3. 

DEPARTMENTS OF ELOCUTION. 

r, T- ^ S'lont, 

. Readmg, ^^^^^.^\^^ 

Departmen;., \ Declamation, 

< Speaking, Premeditated, 

( Oratory, ] r? , 
% •" ( Lxtempjre. 

4. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS AND REMARKS. 

Reading. The perusal or utterance of thought 
and feeling, as seen expressed in Written Lan- 
guage. 

Silent Reading. The perusal of Written Lan- 
guage without utterance. 

Audible Reading. The utterance of thought 
and feeling, as immediately obtained from Written 
Language. 

Remark \st. No work on Elocution with which 
I am conversant attempts a definition of Reading. 

Remark 2d. Silent Reading does not strictly 
come under the definition of Elocution, yet from 
its inseparable connection with the subject, it 
seems necessary to introduce it. 

Speaking. The utterance of thought and feel- 
ing, with the eyes free from Written Language. 

Declamation. The speaking of another's com- 
position. 

Oratory. The speaking of one's own composi- 
tion in an impressive manner. 

Premeditated Oratory. That in which the 
composition has been previously studied. 

Extempore Oratory. That in which the com- 
position is accomplished simultaneously with the 
delivery. 



r~ 



ELOCUTION. 



357 



'n 



5. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE PERSON. 

f Manner of taking Position, 
I Manner of Bowing, 

• Position of the body, | Standing, 
•" / Sitting. 
Position of Upper Extremities, 
I Position of Lffwer Extremities, 
Management | Chnnges in Position, 
of the ■{ Carriage of the Head, 
Person. 



Directions, 
Errors, 
Methods of 
Drill. 



Management of Mouth, \ m'^!i 
° ' l Teeth. 

" Lungs, 

Eyes, 

Expression of Countenance, 

General Appearance, 

.Manner of leaving the Stage. 

6. 

DIRECTIONS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Manner of taking Position. The pupil rises 

when his name is called, and passes with a firm 

and elastic tread, to one side of the stage, and 

ascending in a quiet and graceful manner, takes 

his position where he can best be seen by all the 

audience; and with just a moment's respectful view 

of the audience he bows, to the ladies first, if the 

sexes are separated, then to the gentlemen; or if 

the sexes are intermingled he bows to the whole 

audience. '' 

7. 

Manner of Bowing. In bowing, the whole 
frame should bend slightly, the neck somewhat 
more than other parts. The right hand may wave 
gracefully to the audience, especially to the ladies, 
or both hands may be thrown forward gracefully, 
greetinoj the whole audience. 

Remark 1. No explanation or plate can give a 
correct idea of this greeting, any more than of ges- 



358 ELOCUTION. 

ticulation. It can only be learned from a living 
example. 

Remarh 2. It is not desirable that all the mem- 
bers of a class should give the same form of bow 
or of greeting, in commencing reading or speaking, 
but that a class should be trained in a variety of 
forms. 

8. 

Position of the Body. Whether standing or 
sitting, the body should be erect, the shoulders 
thrown back, and the chest made protuberant. 

9. 

Position of the Upper Extremities. The 
hands should hang as the force of gravity, only, 
will place them. No force should be applied to 
make them hang down or to project the fingers 
downward, or to draw them together. Hanging 
without thought in such a position they are ready 
when needed for gesticulation. The awkward and 
disrespectful positions of the hands, as in the pock- 
ets, or behind the back, should be carefully avoid- 
ed. The fingers should not be permitted to work 
or play with each other, or with the buttons or 
clothes. 

10. 

Position of the Lower Extremities. The 
weight of the body should rest on one foot, rather 
than on both. The foot not sustaining the body 
should be thrown slightly forward or backward of 
the other, and should touch the floor with the ball 
rather than the heel. 



ELOCUTION. 359 

11. 

Change of Position. This may be accomplished 
by throwing the weight on the foot at rest, and by 
those movements which animated delivery requires. 
No change should be made directly forward, or 
directly sideways; but in an oblique direction. 
Changes must not be too frequent; nor so unfre- 
quent as to tire the spectator. 

12. 

Carriage of the Head. The head should be 
sustained respectfully erect, not stiffly so. Much 
grace is exhibited by a handsome carriage of the 
head. In animated delivery it must partake of the 
spirit of the piece in its motions, but all bobbings, 
noddings, and shakings not called for by the senti- 
ment of the piece, must be most scrupulously 
avoided. 

13. 

Manageiient of the Mouth. The almost uni- 
versal fault of keeping the mouth too much closed, 
the lips and teeth too near together, needs the par- 
ticular and continued attention of the trainer and 
the trained. Drills on the vowel sounds with the 
mouth as widely opened as possible, consistently 
with clear enunciation of the several sounds, have 
a good effect towards curing this bad habit. The 
difference of the same vowel sounds with the teeth 
closed and the teeth well apart, may be dwelt on 
by teacher and scholar. 
16 



360 ELOCUTION. 

14. 

Management of the Lungs. The great evil 
in the use of the lungs is that they are permitted 
to remain too nearly in a collapsed condition. 
Full and deep respiration should be practised^ and 
the habit established of commencing the delivery 
of a sentence, with full rather than with exhausted 
lungs. 

15. 

Management of the Eyes. The eyes possess 
more expression, and magnetic power, than the 
entire man besides ; and the person who cannot 
use them for impressing, convincing, or persuading 
his audience, can accomplish nothing in the way 
of oratory, sacred or secular. A vacant stare at 
the audience, or at one place in the midst of the 
audience or out of it, should be carefully avoided. 
The eyes should meet, intelligently and feel- 
ingly meet, those of distinct individuals, whose 
symj)athy with the speaker cannot fail to arouse 
him to higher effort, and more complete success. 
The magic influence of the eye in rousing the in- 
different, in suppressing opposition, in awakening 
sympathy, no speaker can afford to undervalue or 
neglect. 

16. 

Expression of the Countenance. The ex- 
pression of the countenance depends so much on 
that of the eyes, that little need be said further 
about it; yet, if in addition to a want of a sympa- 
thy of the eye with the sentiment uttered, there 
shall be a stupid, impudent, or sneaking expression 



ELOCUTION. 361 

of the countenance, tlie exhibition becomes intol- 
erably repugnant. 

17. 

General Appearance. The general appearance 
must be in keeping with the varying sentiment of 
the piece delivered. The entire system must par- 
ticipate in and exhibit the sentiment. It is this 
self-abandonment -which distinguishes the eiFective 
speaker, this forgetfulness of self and the yielding 
of every faculty to the absorbing, overpowering 
current of thought and feeling, which constitutes 
the finished actor, or orator. 

18. 
Manner of Leaving the Stage. The stage or 
rostrum may be left without any demonstration, 
farther than a quiet, self-possessed retreat. But 
in case the audience have exhibited warm sympa- 
thy with the speaker, a low bow is a suitable 
acknowledgment; and in case applause is contin- 
ued, a repetition of bows while the speaker retreats 
is desirable. In some cases a circular bow and a 
corresponding sweeping gesture with the hand is 
admissible. 

19. 

METHOD OF DRILLING A CLASS. 

Remark 1. Awkwardness and bashfulness are 
only exhibitions of self-consciousness. These 
evils can never be directly overcome in the scholar; 
but they will vanish as he becomes interested in 
his teacher, and in the exercises. 



362 ELOCUTION. 

Remark 2. All exercises should be commenced 
«,s concert exercises, the teacher first giving the 
example. By this means the teacher, perceiving 
who are the most successful, can excuse such by 
twos or threes, and thus reach, by degrees, those 
who need special attention. 

Remark 3. These drills must be introduced 
with prudence into schools, where they are new, 
and not much time given to them; a few minutes 
previous to each reading exercise. Otherwise the 
idea will get out that "the teacher spends so much 
time in his new-fangled notions that the scholars 
do n't learn anything." 

Remark 4. These drills may commence with 
the most advanced reading class, after they shall 
have had a training in the articulate sounds for a 
few weeks. 

20. 
teacher's directions to pupils. 

Direction 1. The class will take their places on 
the floor at such distances that their hands will not 
interfere in gesticulation. 

Remark 1, It is desirable that as many as pos- 
sible stand where their feet can be seen by the 
teacher. 

Direction 2. You may all take the First Posi- 
tion as I take it, body on left foot, right foot for- 
ward, head erect, hands down, not stiffly. Second 
Position. Body forward on the right foot, the left 
foot touching the floor with the toe only. First 
Position again. Third Position. Body on the 
right foot, the left in front. Fourth Position. 



ELOCUTION. 363 

Body on the left foot, the right behind, resting on 
the toe. First Position again, hands on the hips, 
with fingers on the abdomen, thumbs back, elbows 
back, let them touch each other if possible, hands 
down. 

Direction 3. Bow forward with head and body. 
Bow to the right. Bow to the left. Bow forward 
and accompany the bow with the appropriate ges- 
ture of both hands. Bow to the right, with the 
accompaniment of the right hand. Bow to the 
left with the accompaniment of the left hand. Bow 
to each other and take your seats. 

Remark 1. In repeating this drill, as it may 
be necessary to repeat it several days in succession, 
the ingenious teacher will introduce new move- 
ments, and vary the order of the transitions from 
any one position to the others. He may also in- 
troduce a series of gesticulations as will be ex- 
plained under the head of Gesticulation. 

Remark 2. The management of the mouth, 
eyes, countenance, and general appearance, and 
leaving the stage, will come up in connection with 
the Individual Drills in Vocal Culture. 



YOCAL CULTURE. 



21 



I. — PRONUNCIATION. 



Breathing. 



Articulatior.. 



Accent. 



Rules. 



Errors. See introduction pag& 352. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of drill. 

Sounds — see Part II. Chart No. 1. Page 52 
See Introduction Page. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of drill. 

Primary, . 

Common. -I Secondary, 1 

etc. ! 

( Nouns from Verbs. 
Discriminative. ■< Adjectives from Nouns. 

( Adjectives from Verbs. j 

Emphatic. 

Poetical. ^ 

Follow the usage of the best Speakers. 
Consult the nest Dictionaries. 
Avoid any peculiarity that attracts attention. 



^J'CQ 



CC 



>5 



2 VH 



05 



Pitch. 



Force. 



Rate. 



f Sustained. 



II. — MODULATION. 

Terms: ■ Key. Monotone. 

Classes— Medium, High, Very High, Low, Very Low. 

Errors. See Introduction Page 352. 

Objects to be attained. 

Methods of Drill. 

( Medium, Strong, Very Strong. 
( Weak, Very Weak. 
Swell, Vanish, Wave. 
Radical Expulsive Stress. 
Radical Explosive Stress. 
Vanishing Stress. 
Errors. See Introduction Page 'S52. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 
Classes— Medium, Fast, Very Fast, Slow, Very Slow. 
Errors. See Introduction Page 353. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 

(364) 



, § Varying. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



365 



o 
o 



Simple, ' 



h'-'^- Ifzf^''''- 



Classes. «( 



Falling. 



Falling Slide. 
Partial Close. 
Perfect Close. 



f Double Slide. 
Upper Circumflex. 
Compound. \ Lower Circumflex, 
j Emphatic Sweep. 

Errors. See Introduction Page 353. 
Object? to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 
(.Rules 1—8. 



Rise. 
Fall. 



f 



Emphasis. 



Common, Antithetic, 
Classes. ■{ Cumulative, Deferred, 

Cunventional. 

By Elevation or Depression of Pitch 

By Increase or Diminution of Force. 

By Increase or Diminution of Rate. 

By Whisper. 

By Emphatic Sweep. 
I By Rise or Fall of Emphatic Sweep. 

■{ Methods.^ By Upper Circumflex. 

By Lower Circumflex. 

By Emphatic Pause. 

By Change of Tone. 

By Gesticulation. 

By Change of Countenance. 

By Change of Position. 
Errors. See Introduction Page 353. 
Objects to be attained. 
Methods of Drill. 



I 



Tone 






Classes. 



^ Pure, Orotund, Guttural, Nasal Aspirate, 
\ Smooth, Harsh, Shrill, Husky, Tremulous, 
Errors. See Introduction page 353. 

I Objects to be i;ttained. 

t Methods of drill. 



I Classes. < 
I I 



Of Sense, in Pare.ithesis, "Aside," etc. 
Of Paragraphs, Chapters, etc, [etc. 

Of Personation, in Dialogue, Colloquy, 
Transition. •{ Errors. No Change, Too Little Change, Too Much 
I Change. 

Objects to be attained. 
LMethodof DrilL 



r 



366 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



IlL — STYLE OF DELIVERY. 



Plain. 



f Narrative. 

Didactic. 
■{ Persuasive. 
I Argumentative. 
I, Colloquial. 

f Humorous. 
I Pathetic, 

Plaintive. 
j Censorious.' 
Impassioned. ■{ Contemptuoua. 

Ironical. 

Timid. 

Angry., 
.etc. 



Personating. ■{ 



C Love. 
Fear. 
Passional. \ Hate. 
1 Anger. 
Letc. 

(Personal* 

(Peculicrities. 

' National 



Personal. 



National 

& 
Provincial. 



Provincial 



. Peculiarities. ^ 



of Utterance, 
of Gesture, 
of Countenance, 
of Habits, 
f French. 
Dutch. 
Irish, etc. 
Yankee. 
y -j Pennamite. 
Southern, etc. 
Cockney. 
Flash, 
t Gawky, etc. 



22 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, REMARKS AND 
DRILLS. 

Vocal Culture. The training of the organs of 
speech for the more eflfective expression of thought 
and feeling. 

Remark. For definitions of Pronunciation, Ar- 
ticulation, Accent and its divisions, see Part II, 
pages 50 and 51, section 16. See also Drill in ar- 
ticulate sounds, pages 23 and 55, section 17. 



r 



VOCAL CULTURE. 3(17 

23 

DRILL L\ BREATHING TEACHER's DIRECTIONS TO 

PUPILS. 

llrniarL-. The Class will stand during the exer- 
cises. 

Direction 1. Throw the shoulders back, place the 
hands on the hips with the thumbs backward, carry 
the elbows as near back to each other as possible, 
without moving the hands from the hips. 

Direction 2. Draw in breath noiselessly while I 
raise my hand. Exhale noiselessly while my hand 
falls. Extend the lungs to their utmost capacity, 
while you repeat the inhalation. 

Direction 3. You may exhale suddenly as I drop 
my hand, but without any sound whatever. 

Remark. Deep breathing is a healthy exercise, 
calculated to enlarge the volume of the chest, and 
may take the place, to some extent, of out-door ex- 
ercise. Proper vocal culture will require deep 
breathins: in all the exercises. 

Direction 4. Inhale as long as I raise my hand ; 
as I bring it down slowly utter the sound of a. and 
we will see who can give it unbroken, the longest. 
We will try this again ; again ; again ; very well. 

Remark. This exercise serves to train the pupil 
to the economical use of breath, to the habit of 
taking breath before commencing the delivery of a 
sentence, rather than in the evil habit of taking- 
breath where the sense requires no pause ; and that 
of catching the breath in the midst of a syllable. 
Remark. Its chief advantage is in training 
the voice to a full, clear and strong delivery on 
the lower tones, and the teacher should direct his 
16* 



-_ .-f 



368 70CAL CULTURE. 

special attention to this form of training, giving 
the vocal on a lower key, and requiring its utter- 
ance with greater force, as the class can bear it. 

Direction 5. Inhale while I raise my hand, and 
in as low a tone as possible utter the sound o. 
Again, louder ; again, louder. 

Remark. Breath is spent much more rapidly in 
giving low tones than higher ones. 

Remarh to the Teacher. You will now excuse a 
few of those who exhibit the greatest capacity of 
chest and drown the voices of the rest. 

Direction 6. (Calling the names of such) you 
may rest while I find the voices of the remainder 
of the class. 

Remarh. Thus, in turn, sets of two or three or 
more may be excused after each effort, until you 
discover who have the feeblest voices, or the least 
control of them, and who of course need the great- 
est amount of attention and encouragement, to 
drill themselves in this exercise in their rooms, or 
in any other suitable place. Perseverance will not 
only serve to increase the power of the voice, but 
will actually increase the growth of the chest one, 
two, three inches or more, in a few weeks. 

Remarh. No person who is faithful in this exer- 
cise, attending to it daily, and several times a day, 
need fear the consumption or bronchitis ; nor need 
he be deterred by making himself hoarse for the 
first few days. Hoarseness will of necessity result 
from any sufficient self-training, but should not be 
carried too far. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 369 

24. 

DRILL IN ARTICULATION AND ACCENT. 

Each scliolar in turn may be called on to take 
Ills place in one end or corner of the room, and be 
required to read any passage which he may select 
in this book or any other, in a whisper, till he can 
be heard distinctly all over the room. The teach- 
er will take his place as far as possible from the 
scliolar, and inform him of the articulate sounds in 
which he fails. The pupil of course selects pas- 
sages from the book without mentioning the page, 
so that he shall be understood, if at all, entirely 
by the distinctness and force of his articulation in 
the whispering exercise. Every pupil in the class 
will be called, and those who find the most difficul- 
ty in making their reading intelligible, must be 
trained repeatedly, and sufficiently, to reach the end 
aimed at in the drill. Short passages may be as- 
signed, which involve difficult combinations of sub- 
vocal and aspirate sounds. Collections of such 
may be found in almost any reading book. 

25. 

PITCH. 

Pitch, That quality of the voice which depends 
on the tension of the vocal chords, and the extent 
of the opening of the articulatory organs. 

High Pitch. That which results from a more 
than ordinary tension of the vocal chords, and a 
less than ordinary opening of the articulatory or- 
gans. 

Remark. For definition and enumeration of Ar^ 
ticulatory Organs^ see page 48, section 11. 



I 

-^ ( 



370 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Low Pitch. That which results from a less than 
ordinary tension of the vocal chords, and more 
than ordinary opening of the articulatory organs. 

Key. The average pitch on which any given 
passage is delivered. 

Monotone. The same pitch, either high, medium, 
or low, with no variation, other than required by 
accent and cadence. 

Remark. The Monotone is often thought to be 
Unvarying Low Pitch. 

26. 

DRILL ON PITCH. 

Exerckc, 1. The class maybe called on to give the 
sound 0, in a medium pitch, with the teacher, and 
several times, till he perceives that they have all the 
same pitch. Then, the same sound in a low pitch ; 
then, in a very low pitch; then, in a high pitch; 
then, in a very high. 

Remark. This exercise must be varied and con- 
tinued, till all the class get not only the knowledge 
of pitch, but till every scholar, whether possessed 
of a musical ear or not, can give a sound in any 
pitch required. 

Exercise 2. The teacher will select some short 
passage, and require the class to read in concert, 
first in the ordinary pitch; then a little lower; then 
lower still, and so on, until a point is reached, 
where but a few of the better male voices can read 
with a distinct articulation. Then, commencing 
again with the ordinary pitch, the reading of the 
passage may be repeated, and varied in the ascend- 



VOCAL CULTURE. 371 

ing scale, till as higli a pitcli as may be consistent 
witli distinct articulation is reached. 

Remark 1. In pursuing these drills, females must 
be trained by themselves occasionally, while the 
males rest, and the plan of exercising the more 
powerful voices by twos and threes practised, till 
the most feeble voices and the most timid girls are 
reached, and their difficulties met by special train- 
in <2:. 

Remark 2. This exercise must be varied and con- 
tinued, till every scholar can read any passage as- 
signed, in any pitch required, unaccompanied by 
the teacher or other scholars. 

Remctrk 3. Particular attention must be paid to 
those scholars who have acquired the habit of read- 
ing or speaking on too high or too low a key for 
their voice. Every voice has its own key, on which 
it can sustain continued delivery with the greatest 
ease to itself, and with the greatest satisfaction to 
an audience. 

Remark 4. By frequent daily repetition of these 
exercises, on single sounds, and on sentences, in a 
low pitch with ever increasing force, a depth and 
strength of voice can be acquired which may be 
used, when required, with great effect in delivering 
emphatic words or passages. The exercise is well 
calculated to give the greatest compass and flexi- 
bility to the voice, and to bring it perfectly under 
control in this particular. 

Remark 5. Constant attention must be given to 
the QUALITY of the voice in all these drills. No 
husky, guttural or nasal tones should be tolerated; 



372 VOCAL CULTURE. 

but if necessary, special drilling should be given to 
every jnipil who does not possess a clear, full, ring- 
ing voice ; in other words, runE tone. One of the 
more common causes of impure tone is a want of 
sufficient opening of the teeth and lips. If that 
be the difficulty, illustrations of the diiTerence of 
tone resulting from this cause must be given by the 
teacher, and the pupil must have no peace till the 
difficulty be removed. 

27. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN PITCH. 

LOW PITCH. 

Hold ! Shame ! Beware ! It is impossible ! Scorn 
to be slaves. May my tongue cleave to the roof of 
my mouth. 

Bless the Lord, my soul, and all that is with- 
in me bless his holy name. 

HIGH PITCH. 

0, fie. My stars. Grood enough. Victor?/ (they 
all shouted) Victory, (as loud as they could 
scream), VICTOBY. 

To arms ! the Grreek ! they come, the Greek ! ! 
the Greek ! ! ! 

VARYING PITCH OR COMPASS. 

FalUng. 
I know not what course others may take, but as 
for me, give me liberty or give me death ! 

Rising. 
What ! to attribute the sacred sanctions of God, 
and nature, to the massacres of the Indian scalping 
knife ; to the cannibal savage, torturing, murder- 
ing, devouring, drinking the blood of his mangled 
victims ! 



VOCAL CULTURE. 373 

28. 

FORCE. 

Force. That j roperty of the voice which de- 
pends on the pc wer with which air is driven over 
the vocal chords, by the action of the respiratory 
organs. 

Remark. For the definition and enumeration of 
the Respiratory Organs, see page 48, section 11. 

Sustained Force. That which is continued 
through the delivery of a word, phrase, or sen- 
tence. 

Medium Force. That of ordinary delivery in the 
conversational or didactic style. 

Strong Force. That of loud tones. 

Very Strong Force. That of vociferous tones. 

Weak Force. That of soft tones. 

Very Weak Force. That of subdued or almost 
suppressed tones. 

29. 

DRILL OX FORCE. 

Reinarh 1. More difficulty is found in this mat- 
ter of force, than in all others connected with read- 
ing and speaking. Many pupils, by previous bad 
habits, or by timidity, or by affectation, have no 
apparent power to make themselves heard beyond 
a few feet. Hence teachers, fellow pupils, and 
visitors, are perpetually annoyed by such shams. 
Tke first exercise must be directed to the remedy of 
this evil, and if necessary, the last. 

Exercise 1. Let the class rise, take proper posi- 
tion, and give in concert the sound of o, in the me- 
dium pit^h and with medium force; again, as the 



37-1 



VOCAL CULTURE. 



the teacher says " h)iider," with increased force; 
and so on at the word "k)uder," with still increasing 
force, till vociferous tones are reached, at least by 
some of the class. Care must be taken that the 
medium pitch be preserved. 

Let those having the strongest voices sit down 
(calling them by name). Gro through with the 
same drill with the remainder of the class, excus- 
ing' two or three at a time of those who are most 
distinctly heard till the feeblest voices are reached. 
Train these by themselves repeatedly, in a similar 
manner, giving the sounds of different letters, of 
different syllables and words. When some degree 
of force is developed on single words, short sen- 
tences may be read, by those timid, affected crea- 
tures till they can be heard in a remote corner of 
the room. After training several together, till 
this be accomplished, each such pupil may be 
taken separately and drilled till whatever force of 
voice or of character possessed shall be brought 
out and increased. The teacher may then pass 
into another room and shut the door, and require 
such pupils separately to read short sentences so 
that he can hear them; then longer ones. 

This exercise must be resumed every day, for 
many days, perhaps for weeks, till the difficulty be 
entirely removed. 

Exercise 2. Let the class give the sound of a 
vowel on a low pitch, and increase the force as 
before ; again, on a very low pitch. Such pupils as 
succeed the best may be excused; while those whose 



VOCAL CULTURE. 375 

voices are feeble must be trained in proportion to 
their need, especially to acquire force in low pitch. 

Exercise 3. Reading in the monotone in very 
low pitch, with all possible force, serves to give 
great strength and compass to the voice. This 
exercise may be varied by concert reading on the 
monotone, in high pitch, and very high pitch, with 
increasing force ; and by alternating from reading 
in monotone in high pitch, to reading in monotone 
in low pitch ; from very high pitch, to very low, 
with diiFerent degrees of force as the teacher may 
direct, from medium to loud, very loud, vociferous; 
again from medium to soft, subdued, suppressed 
and whisper. 

Remark 1. Too much attention cannot be be- 
stowed in every drill on Pure Tone. 

Remark 2. It is frequently necessary to drill 
the female voices separately, while the male voices 
rest. 

31. 

Yarying Force. That which is increased or 
diminished, or both increased and diminished on 
the same syllable. 

Swell. The increase of force on one syllable. 

Vanish. The diminution of force on one sylla- 
ble. 

Stress. Force applied to one part of a syllable 
more than to another. 

Radical Stress. That applied at the com- 
mencement of a syllable. 

Vanishing Stress. That applied at the end of 
a syllable. It is seldom used. 



376 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Expulsive Radical Stress. The powerful ut- 
terance of a syllable at its commencement, dimin- 
ishinGT somewhat to the end. 

Explosive Radical Stress. The violent burst- 
ing forth of sound at the commencement of a syl- 
lable, diminishing somewhat to the end. 

Remark 1. The superiority of accomplished 
speakers consists much in the appropiate use of 
Varying Force ; a matter which is almost entirely 
overlooked in the majority of books on elocution. 

Remark 2. Unremitting attention must be 
o-iven in the followino- exercises to PURE 
TOXE. No slender, aspirated, husky, nasal, or 
guttural sounds should be tolerated unless required 
by the nature of the piece delivered. Nothing 
short of a ringing tone, as clear and as sweet as a 
bell, should satisfy the trainer or trained. 

32. 
examples for drill in sustained force. 

Remark. Any of the following examples may 
be used for Uxercises 1 or 3 in sustained force. 

LOUD. 

Look aloft. Watch, Watch. 

To arms, to arms, the foe, they come, they come. 

Roll! on thou deep and dark-blue ocean, Roll! 

SOFT. 

Speak gently, she sleeps now. 

Come then; expressive silence, muse His praise. 

Ah ! few shall part where many meet. 
The snow shall be their v,'inding sheet; 
And every turf beneath their feet 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 377 

WHISPER. 

Hark ! what is that noise? What can it be? 
Let us go and find mother ! 

Hush ! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a rising 
knell. 

33. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN VARYING FORCE. 

0! Ah ! Hold. Woe. Shoulder arms. For- 
ward march. Rear column, halt. 

Rouse, ye Romans ! Rouse, ye slaves ! 
Strike ! till the last armed foe expires, 
Strike, for your altars and your fires, 
Strike for the green graves of your sires, 
God — and your native land. 

Oh heaven ! she cried. Can you not save him I 
Oh ! save my husband. 

34. 

LAUGHING EXERCISE. 

Remark. Exercise in concert laughing occa- 
sionally, is desirable, not only as a drill in varying 
force, but for its enlivening efiects on a class. 

Let the exercise commence on Ha ! ha! ha! ha! 
and make a real laugh of it ; none of your dry, 
hollow, sham laughs — like this. Ha! ha! ha! but 
a real, genuine, hearty, old-fashioned laugh all 
around — Ha ! ha ! ha ! ha ! The exercise may be 
stopped by a sudden elevation of the hand as a 
signal. 

EXAMPLE FOR THE LAUGHING EXERCISE. 

What a funny old fellow that is ! ha, ha, ha, ha. 
Did you ever see the like before? ha! ha! ha! ha! 
Just look at his nose once ! if it is n't enough to 
make a horse laugh, ha! ha! ha! Oh my eyes! 
what a nose, ha! ha! ha! ha! 



378 VOCAL CULTUKE. 

35. 

RATE. 

Rate. Rapidity of utterance, in the delivery 
of a sentence, or discourse. 

Remark 1. The proper rate of delivery in every 
passage will depend on the nature of the thought 
and feeling expressed, yet it should not be so slow 
as to become a continuous drawl, nor so fast in any 
instance as to prevent distinct articulation. 

Remarh 2. " Reading too fast," is a common 
fault and much attention is demanded to correct it. 
In drilling a scholar, to correct too rapid reading, 
he will generally read slower by making pauses 
between all the words. This should not be tolera- 
ted, but he should be taught to prolong the vocals 
and sub-vocals, and to articulate the aspirates more 
distinctly. 

Remarh 3. Concert exercises will aid much in 
correcting too rapid reading, the teacher controlling 
the rate with his voice in each example at first. 
But they must not be relied on entirely. 

36. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RATE. 

Remarh. Any sentence whatever may be taken 
as material for drill in correcting too rapid reading; 
this, for instance, or the following sentences : 

iSLOW AND DISTINCT. 

God, who at sundry times and in divers manners, 
spake in times past unto the fathers by the proph- 
ets, hath in these last days spoken unto us by His 
dear Son. 

! Jerusalem ! Jerusalem ! thou that killest the 
prophets and stonest them that are sent unto thee, 



VOCAL CULTURE. 379 

how often would I have gathered thy children to- 
gether, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under 
her wings, and ye would not ! 

RAPID AND DISTINCT. 

How far wilt thou, ! Cataline, abuse our pa- 
tience ? How long shall thy madness outbrave our 
justice? To what extremities art thou resolved to 
push thy unbridled insolence of guilt ? 

37. 

INFLECTIONS. 

Inflection. The continuous elevation or de- 
pression of the pitch in the delivery of a syllable, 
word, phrase or sentence. 

Explanation. By continuous elevation and de- 
pression is here understood that upward or down- 
ward sliding from one point to another, in the mu- 
sical scale by which the voice is heard at every in- 
termediate point. 

Simple Inflection. That which is entirely ri- 
sing or entirely falling. 

Rising Inflection. That in which the voice by 
a gradual tightening of the vocal chords and clo- 
sing of the articulatory organs, glides from a lower 
to a higher pitch. 

Falling Inflection. That in which the voice 
by a gradual relaxing of the vocal chords and 
opening of the articulatory organs, glides from a 
higher to a lower pitch. 

Rising Slide. The rising inflection continued 
through any single word standing independently, 
through several words, or through an entire sen- 
tence. 



380 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Explanation. The rising slide may be applied 
to such single words, as interjections, names of per- 
sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- 
ces; otherwise to several words in succession. 

Bend. The rising inflection applied to a single 
word standing at the end of a phrase, clause or 
sentence, to denote incomplete sense. 

38. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. 

Let the teacher select definite questions from this 
book, or any other, and read them with the rising 
slide ; then with the bend, or rising inflection on 
the last word only, for the purpose of showing the 
correct manner of delivering them ; also, for the 
purpose of showing the incorrect notation of such 
reading books as place the mark for the rising in- 
flection on the last word only of a definite ques- 
tion. 

Hemar'k. If any mark is used, it ought to be 
placed at the beginning, rather than at the end of 
a question. 

The teacher having illustrated the nature of the 
rising slide, and the manner of using it, with his 
own voice, will call on the class to read short ques- 
tions in concert with himself; individuals in the 
class, to read the same, and other questions. In 
long questions, it will be well for the class all to 
take the pitch of the first word. This pitch should 
be much lower than the ordinary key, in order that 
the voice may have opportunity to rise through the 
whole question, without running so high, as to 
break. 



VOCAL CULTURE. ' 381 

Remark. In reading veri/ long sentences, con- 
sisting of several clauses, or members, the voice 
will necessarily fall back at the commencement of 
ev-ery new clause to a pitch but a little higher than 
at the commencement of the preceding clause or 
member of the question. The pitch will become 
more and more elevated in every succeeding clause, 
till it culminates at the close of the last word of the 
entire sentence. 

39. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN RISING INFLECTIONS. 

RISING SLIDE, 

Do you deny that ? Is that the man whom you 
expected ? Did you arrive in town yesterday ? 
Should we not all, both teachers, and scholars, be 
scrupulously careful to comply with the school 
regulations which we have adopted ? 

What ? Might Rome then have been taken if 
these men who were at our gates had not wanted 
courage for the attempt ? Rome taken, whilst I 
was consul? 

Has Great Britain any enemy in this quarter of 
the world to call for all this accumulation of navies 
and armies ? No sir, she has none. 

Shall we acquire the means of eifectual resistance, 
by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the 
delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies shall 
have bound us hand and foot? 

Do we never meet with charity which melts at 
sufiering; with the honesty which disdains and is 
probably superior to falsehood ; with the active 
beneficence which gives to others its time and its 
labor ; with the modesty which shrinks from notice 



382 VOCAL CULTURE. 

and gives all its sweetness to retirement ; witli the 
gentleness wliicli breathes peace to all, and throws 
a beautiful lustre over the walks of domestic life ? 

Was it not enough that sorrow robed the happy 
home in mourning ; was it not enough that disap- 
pointment pre3^ed on its loveliest prospects ; was it 
not enough that its little inmates cried in vain for 
bread, and heard no answer, but the poor father's 
sigh, and drank no sustenance, but the wretched 
mother's tears ; was this a time for passion, con- 
scienceless, licentious passion, with its eye of lust, 
its heart of stone, its hand of rapine, to rush into 
the mournful sanctuary of misfortune, casting 
crime into the cup of woe, and rob the parents of 
their only wealth, their child, and rob the child of 
her only charm, her innocence ? 

Do we intend to violate that most solemn obliga- 
tion ever entered into by men, that plighting be- 
fore God of our sacred honor to Washington, when, 
putting him forth to incur the dangers of war as 
well as the political hazards of the times, we prom- 
ised to adhere to him in every extremity, with our 
fortunes and our lives ? 

Remarh. Other examples may be selected from 
almost any reading book in use in the school ; 
though these few afford sufficient material and va- 
riety for drilling a class on this inflection, viz : the 



Rising Slide. 



40. 

BEND. 



As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be 
made alive. 

Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be 
gathered together. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 383 

Remark. Other examples for drill in the use of 
the Bead may be taken from any part of this book, 
or any other. 

41. 

Falling Slide. The billing inflection continued 
through any single word standing independently, 
through several words, or through an entire sen- 
tence. 

Explanation. The falling slide may be applied 
to such single words as interjections, names of per- 
sons addressed, and equivalents for whole senten- 
ces ; otherwise to several words in succession. 

Partial Close. The falling inflection applied 
to a single word, commencing at a point above the 
key, and descending to it or slightly below it. 

Perfect Close. The falling inflection applied 
at the end of a sentence, commencing with the key 
and descending far below it. 

42. 

method of drill in the falling inflections. 

Let the teacher select indefinite questions from 
this book or any other, and read them with the fall- 
ing slide ; and then with the perfect close, or fall- 
ing inflection on the last word, only, for the pur- 
pose of showing the correct manner of delivering 
them, also for the purpose of showing the incor- 
rect notation of such reading books as place the 
mark for the falling inflection on the last word, 
only, of an indefinite question. 

The teacher having illustrated the nature of the 
falling slide, and the manner of using it, with his 
own voice, will call on the class to read short in- 
17 



384 VOCAL CULTURE. 

definite questions in concert with himself; then in 
concert, without his accompaniment ; then on indi- 
viduals in the class to read the same or other ques- 
tions till they obtain the perfect control of the 
voice in this sj^ecies of delivery. 

EemarJc. It is a good j)lan to require the read- 
ing of an indefinite question occasionally with the 
rising slide, then again with the falling, till the 
diff'erence is clearly discriminated, and till every 
voice in the class can give either, on any sentence 
that may be proposed. 

A similar course may be pursued with the closes, 
as with the falling slide, contrasting them with the 
bend, and requiring the class, and individuals who 
most need the drill, to give the bend when the sense 
demands the partial close, and vice versa. 

Remark. In the following exercises, selected 
more particularly for drill in falling inflections; ri- 
sing inflections, particularly the bend, will neces- 
sarily occur, and suitable attention must be be- 
stowed on their appropriate delivery. 

43. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN THE FALLING INFLECTION. 

FALLING SLIDE. 

Who is here so base that he would be a bond- 
man? 

Where is the man w^hose moral courage is equal 
to the test of rising and pleading this cause 
against this host of the licentious and profane? 

How difl"erent would have been our lot this day 
had the revolution failed of success! 



VOCAL CULTURE. 385 

What can carry less the appearance of a design 
to fight than a man entangled with a cloak, shut 
up in a chariot, and almost fettered by a wife ? 

Who could guess, 
If ever more should meet those mutual eyes. 
Since upon a night, so sweet, such awful morn 
should rise ? 

Rcmarh. In very long indefinite questions con- 
sisting of several members, the voice takes a high 
pitch at the commencement of the first member and 
falls continuously to its end ; then commencing the 
second member in a pitch not cjuite so high as at 
first, it falls to its end, and so on through the suc- 
cessive members ; each member commencing and 
ending a little lower than the preceding member. 

AYhat place would be drearer than the future 
mansions of Christ to one who should want sympa- 
thy with their inhabitants ; who could not under- 
stand their language ; who would feel himself an 
alien there ; vrho would be taught by those holy 
joys, of which he could not partake and for which 
he would have no relish, his own loneliness and 
desolation ? 

Why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy 
brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is 
in thine own eye ; or how wilt thou say to thy 
brother : Let me pull out the mote of thine eye, and 
behold a beam is in thine own eye ? 

To whom do we owe it, that the pure and pow- 
erful light of the gospel is now shed abroad over 
these countries, and rapidly gaining on the dark- 
ness of the western world; that the importance of 
religion to the temporal welfare, and to the perma- 
nence of wise institutions, is here beginning to be 
felt in its just measure ; that the influence is not 



386 VOCAL CULTURE. 

here as in almost every other section of Christen- 
dom, wrested to purposes of worldly ambition ; that 
the holy Bible is not sealed from the eyes of those 
for whom it was intended ; and that the best char- 
ities and noblest powers of the soul are not degra- 
ded by the terrors of a dark and artful supersti- 
tion. 

44. 

PARTIAL AND PERFECT CLOSES. 

Remark. The partial close is used to denote 
sense completed, but connected grammatically with 
that which follows ; the perfect close is used to de- 
note sense completed, but without grammatical con- 
nection with anything following. The closes are 
also both used, when given intensely, for emphasis, 
even when the sense is not complete, as will be 
shown under the head of Emphasis. 

The history of the world is full of testimony to 
prove how much depends upon industry ; not an 
eminent orator has lived but is an example of it. 

With trembling hands, and faltering steps, he 
departed from his mansion of sorrow ; his eyes 
were dazzled with the splendor of the light ; and 
the face of nature presented to his view a perfect 
paradise. The jail in which he had been impris- 
oned stood at some distance from Pekin, and to that 
city he directed his course, impatient to enjoy the 
caresses of his wife, his children, and his friends. 

Be perfect, be of good comfort ; be of one mind, 
live in peace. 

45. 

SERIES. 

Remarh 1. In a succession of particulars, most 
reading books give directions to place the rising 



VOCAL CULTURE. 387 

inflection on the last member of a commencing se- 
ries, and on the last but one of a concluding series. 
Though no speaker, while earnestly engaged in de- 
livering his own thoughts, ever conformed to these 
directions, it may be well, for the sake of the drill, 
to require a class to comj^ly with these methods of 
delivery. 

COMMENCING SERIES. 

The poor, the sick, the aged and the wounded, 
were left to perish. 

To advise the ignorant, to relieve the needy, and 
to comfort the afflicted, are duties that fall in our 
way almost every day af our lives. 

CONCLUDINO SERIES. 

I protest against this measure as cruel, oppres- 
sive, tyrannical, and vindictive. 

God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the 
spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles, 
believed on in the world, and received up into 
glory. 

Remark 2. In a long series, the bend may be 
usedj to avoid monotony, occasionally, but no defi- 
nite rule can be given in this matter. The judg- 
ment and taste of no two readers would agree; nor 
would any good reader be likely to deliver such a 
passage twice, precisely alike, in respect to the in- 
flections. Take the following examples, for in- 
stance, on which the teacher and scholars can ex- 
ercise their voices and their taste : 

Neither blindness, nor gout, nor age, nor pen- 
ury, nor domestic afflictions, nor political disap- 
pointments, nor abuse, nor proscription, nor neg- 
lect, had power to disturb him. 



388 VOCAL CULTURE. 

We do not pray, to instruct or advise God ; not 
to teli Him news, or inform Him of our wants; nor 
do we pray, by dint of argument, to persuade (Jod, 
and bring Him to our bent ; nor that by fair 
speech we may cajole Him ; or move His afiection 
toward us by pathetic orations ; not for any such 
purpose are we obliged to pray ; but because it be- 
comcth and behooveth us to do so ; because it is a 
proper means of bettering, ennobling, and perfect- 
ing our souls ; because it breedeth most holy affec- 
tions, pure satisfactions, and w^orthy resolutions ; 
because it fitteth us for the enjoyment of happi- 
ness ; and leadeth us thither ; for such ends is de- 
votion prescribed. 

46. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN ALL THE SIMPLE INFLEC- 
TIONS COMBINED. 

Let the teacher select some piece in the reading 
book used, of rather simple grammatical construc- 
tions, and let the members of the class, each read 
one sentence, and describe his method of reading it, 
in respect to inflections. The remainder of the 
class will then be called on for criticisms ; first, in 
the inflections given ; secondly on the manner of 
describing them ; thirdly, on the words miscalled ; 
fourthly, on the words mispronounced, stating defi- 
nitely what sound was given, and what sound the 
correct pronunciation requires. This course must 
be pursued several successive days, perhaps for 
weeks; at least, until every scholar shall become en- 
tirely familiar with the diff"erent inflections, and 
the technical names applied to them. No teacher 
should be satisfied, with calling the bend, the rising 



VOCAL CULTURE. 389 

inflection; or with calling the partial close, the fall- 
ing inflection, since there arc other inflections of 
both kinds. 

47 

COMPOUND INFLECTIONS. 

Compound Inflection. A combination of both 
the risino; and fallino- inflections on the same word, 
phrase, clause, or sentence. 

Double Slide. The rising slide, or slides, on 
one member of an antithetic or conditional expres- 
sion; and the falling on the other. 

Upper Double Slide. That in which the rising 
slide, or slides, precede the falling. 

LowEU Double Slide. That in which the fall- 
ing slide, or slides, precede the rising. 

JSfote 1. The more emphatic member gen- 
erally takes the ftilling slide. 

Note 2. If the antithesis is between an 
afiirmation or negation, the negation generally takes 
the rising slide. 

Note 3. It will be noticed that the rising slide 
terminates with a bend, when used in connection 
with the falling, to form the double slide. 

48. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE DOUBLE SLIDES. 

Art thon he that should come, or do we look for 
another ? 

Has God forsaken the works of his own hands, 
or does he always graciously preserve, and keep, 
and guide them ? 

As it was then, so it is now. 



890 VOCAL CULTURE. 

As in Adam all die, so in Christ are all mada 
alive. 

It is sown in corruption, it is raised in incorrup- 
tion. 

My son, if thou wilt receive my words, and hide 
my commandments with thee ; so that thou incline 
thine ear unto wisdom, and apply thine heart unto 
understanding ; yea, if thou cricst after knowledge, 
and liftest up thy voice after understanding ; if 
thou seekest her as silver, and searchest for her, as 
for hid treasure ; then shalt thou understand the 
fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of 
God. 

You were paid to fight against Alexander, not to 
rail at him. 

He declares Mr. Smith to be an honorable and 
trustworthy man, and not a hypocrite or knave, as 
you seem willing to insinuate. 

49. 

Circumflex. A combination of the rising and 
falling inflections on one syllable or word. 

Upper Circumflex. That in which the rising 
inflection is heard first. 

Lower Circumflex. That in which the fallino; 
inflection is heard first. 

Remark 1. In the upper circumflex the rising 
inflection is often heard slightly, after the falling, 
as well as before it. 

Remark 2. Mandeville calls the upper circum- 
flex the wave ; and the lower, the circumflex. 
McGufi'ey calls the upper circumflex, the falling 
circumflex, and the lower, the rising. 

Remark 3. Though the circumflexes may be 



VOCAL CULTURE. 391 

placed in these two classes, their modifications and 
varieties are endless; no two being given precisely 
alike. 

50. 

EXAMPLP]S FOR DRILL ON THE CIRCUMrLEXES. 

You loiU bring your grammar io-morrow f 
You will bring your grammar io-morrow? 
You will bring your grammar to-morrow f 
You will bring your grammar io-morrow f 

Ship a/toj/.^ Ship a/io?/ f 

If we have no regard for our own character, we 
ought to have some regard for the characters of 
others. 

Were there ten cleansed, but where are the nine f 

Should not children obey their parents in all 
things ? 

What will content you? Talent? No! Enter- 
prise ? No ! Courage ? No ! Reputation ? No ! 
Virtue ? No ! The man whom you Avould select, 
should possess not one, but all of these. 

Remark. The words No in this last example 
may be read with the lower circumflex, except the 
last, which should receive the upper circumflex, 
and perfect close, with considerable measure of 
force. 

Where grows f Where grows it not ? 

Wliat ! Might Rome have been taken ? Rome 
taken when I was consul ? 

Banished from Rome ! Tried and convicted 
traitor ! 

Prince Henry. What's the matter? 
Fahtaff. What's the matter ? Here be four of 
us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. 



n 



392 VOCAL CULTURE. 

And this fellow calls himself a jDainter ? A 
Painter ? He is not fit to daub the sign of a coun* 
try ale-house. 

And this man is called a Statesman ? A States- 
man! Why, he never invented a decent humbug. 

Remarh. The last six examples are taken from 
McGuffey's Fifth Reader, where the words in italics 
are marked with the rising inflection. The class 
may read them with the rising inflection ; also, 
with the upper circumflex and lower circumflex, 
and may then be called on to decide on the most 
appropriate delivery. If the upper circumflex be 
given to the words Painter and Statesman, ridicule 
is thrown on the idea given in the preceding sen- 
tences. If the same words be read with the lower 
circumflex, contempt is expressed for the persons 
spoken of. 

A man who is in the daily use of ardent spirits, 
if he does not abuse his wife and children, will 
eventually ruin his health and character. 

A lady who sufi"ers herself to use tobacco, if she 
does not ruin her health and character, makes her- 
self utterly repulsive and disgusting. 

The boy who plays truant occasionally, if he 
does not thereby lose all interest in his studies, 
will become an unreliable and worthless citizen. 

Remark. By the proper or improper use of the 
circumflexes in these last three examples, two en- 
tirely difi'erent sets of ideas will be given in read- 
ing them ; hence, they are very good examples 
for the discrimination of the circumflexes. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 393 

51. 
Emphatic Sweep. The combination of the slides 
and circumflexes for the purpose of emj)hasis. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE EMPHATIC SWEEP. 

A cry of joyful surprise resounded through the 
court-room. The prisoner charged with murder 
was declared innocent. 

If I would not consent to be searched, it was be- 
cause I was a stranger to every one present; and 
because I had on my person a medal exactly simi- 
lar to the one supposed to be stolen. 

Remark. The above examples give the combi- 
nation of the rising slide, upper circumflex, and 
falling slide, in the same order as here mentioned. 

The poor girl paid him tlianhfidly, when she 
learned that her bill was only fifty cents. 

Remark. In this example, the first emphatic 
sweep consists of the rising slide and the upper 
circumflex, on the word thank/idly; the second em- 
phatic sweep consists of the rising slide, slightly 
developed, and the lower circumflex on fifty cents. 

The man asked the Doctor whether he killed his 
wife. "No," said the Doctor. "Did you cure 
her?" " No." "Then you have no legal demand, 
according to our contract,^^ said the man. 

Remark. Let the pupil describe each of the em- 
phatic sweeps in the preceding passage — i. e., tell 
what each one is made up of, winch slides and 
which circumflex; also, in the following passage : 

" It amazes me that ministers don't write better 
sermons ; I am sick of the dull prosy aff"airs," said 
a woman in the presence of Dr. Nesbit. 

" But it is no easy matter, my good woman, to 
write good sermons," suggested the Doctor. 



394 VOCAL CULTURE. 

" Yes," rejoined the lady, " hut you are so long 
ahont it ; I could write one in half the time, if I 
only had the text." 

" 0, if a text is all you want," said Dr. Nesbit, 
" I will furnish that; take this one from Solomon : 
' It is better to dwell in a corner of a house top, 
than in a wide house with a brawling woman.' " 

"Do you mean me, sir?" inquired the woman 
quickly. 

" 0, my good woman," was the response, " you 
will never make a sermonizer ; you are too quick in 
making your application." 

Remark. From these examples it will be seen 
that the emphatic sweep is the most complex form 
of inflection ; and that it is made up of every pos- 
sible combination of the slides and circumflexes ; 
also, that the emphasis concentrates itself in the 
circumflex, the slides being introductory, or con- 
cluding in their character. 

52. 

RULES FOR INFLECTIONS. 

Remark 1. The classification of sentences is 
given on page 1G8, section 71. 

Remark 2. Interrogative sentences are divi- 
ded for purposes of delivery, into Definite, Indefi- 
nite, Indirect, and Double. 

Definite Interrogative Sentence. One which 
may be answered by yes or no. 

Indefinite Interrogative Sentence. One that 
requires some other answer than yes or no. 

Indirect Interrogative Sentence. One which 
has the grammatical form of a declarative sentence. 

Double Interrogative Sentence. One in which 
the disjunctive or occurs. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 395 

Remark 3. Scarcely a rule can be given for the 
inflections which is not liable to be modified or vio- 
lated by emphasis or impassioned delivery. Some 
of the cases in which such modifications or viola- 
tions most frequently occur will be given as excep- 
tions. 

Remark 4. It may be said : " If no rule is re- 
liable, why gi7e any rules?" I give them as in- 
dicative of the most common usage ; but more, for 
the advantage of the drill which the examples un- 
der them afford. 

53. 

RULE I. 

Simple and complex declarative sentences, are 
delivered with the bend, at the intermediate pauses; 
with the emphatic sweep, culminating on the em- 
phatic words; and with the perfect close at the end. 

Remark. The substitute for this rule, as given 
by authors who pay no attention to sentential 
structure, is substantially this : "Incomplete sense 
requires the rising inflection ; and complete sense, 
the falling inflection." 

51. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Simple Declaratives. 
In thy sight, Lord, shall no man be justified. 

Many persons mistake the love, for the practice 
of virtue. 

Complex Declaratives. 

Lysimachus, the teacher of Alexander, being an 
austere man, and a near relation of Olympias, in- 
ured his pupil to hardy habits, which invigorated 
his constitution. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 396 

There are but few who know how to be idle and 
innocent. 

As fame is but breath, as riches are transitory, 
and as life itself is uncertain, it becomes us to seek 
a better portion. 

Ye who listen with credulity to the whispers of 
fancy, and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of 
hope ; who expect that age will perform the prom- 
ises of youth, and that the deficiencies of the pres- 
ent day will be supplied by the morrow, attend to 
the history of Easselas, prince of Abyssinia. 

55. 
Exception 1. Earnest and sad delivery often re- 
quire the partial close at the intermediate pauses. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Earnest Delivery. 

From thy throne in the sky, thou lookest ; and 
hurlest the bolt of death. 

To smile upon those we should censure, Lo- 
renzo, and to countenance such as are guilty of 
bad actions, is bringing guilt on ourselves. 

Ah ! me, the laureled wreath that murder rears, 
Blood-nursed and watered with a widow's tears, 
Seems not so foul, so tainted, and so dread, 
As waves the nightshade round the sceptic's 
head. 

57. 
Sad Delivery. 
The path of sorrow, and that path alone, 
Leads to the land where sorrow is unknown. 

Touch not those ancient elms that bend their shade 
O'er the patriots' graves, for 'neatli their boughs 
There is a solemn darkness even at noon 
Suited to such as visit at the shrine 



VOCAL CULTURE. 397 

Of serious liberty. No fiictious voice 
Called them unto the field of generous fame, 
But the pure consecrated love of home. 

58. 

Exception 2. Negative sentences and clauses are 
generally delivered with the rising slide and with 
the lower circumflex on the emphatic word; hence 
they terminate with the bend, instead of the per- 
fect close. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Friends, it was not owx lyurpo&e to injure you. 

It was not an eclipse that caused the darkness at 
the crucifixion of our Lord ; for the sun and moon 
were not relatively in a position to produce an 
eclipse. 

Now it is hardly to be supposed that he could 
have acquitted himself very well, as ill as he was 
last Saturday evening. 

59. 

Exception 3. The members of a series may be 
delivered partly or entirely with the partial close, 
instead of the bend, at the intermediate pause, or 
pauses, of the sentence of which they form a part. 

Remark. Most writers on Elocution give defi- 
nite rules for the delivery of series, dividing them 
into commencing and concluding series ; but for 
the reason assigned on page 386, section 45, I con- 
sider such rules pernicious. Grood taste, for the 
guidance of which no definite rule can be given in 
this case, must determine the proper and pec idiai' 
delivery of every series that may occur. 



398 VOCAL CULTURE. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Love, jo}^, peace, long suffering, gentleness, 
goodness, fiiith, meekness, temperance, are tlie 
fruits of the spirit. 

The science of Elocution is noble, elegant, pleas- 
ing, refining, useful, intricate, philosophical and 
wonderful ; nevertheless some of the rules given by 
Elocutionists are trifling, erroneous and pernicious. 

The fruits of the spirit are love, joy, peace, long 
suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, 
temperance ; against these there is no law. 

For I am persuaded that neither life, nor death, 
nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor hight, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to sep- 
arate us from the love of God, which is in Christ 
Jesus, our Lord. 

60. 

RULE II. 

Compound declarative sentences are delivered 
with the partial close at the termination of the 
leading, and of all the co-ordinate sentences, except 
the last, which takes the perfect close. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good ; 
A shining gloss, that fadeth suddenly; 
A flower, that dies almost in the bud ; 
A brittle glass, that breaketh presently ; 
A fleeting good, a glass, a gloss, a flower, 
Lost, faded, broken, dead within the hour. 

And beside this, giving all diligence, add to your 
faith, virtue ; and to your virtue, knowledge ; and 
to your knowledge, temperance ; and to your tem- 



VOCAL CULTURE. 399 

perance, patience ; and to your patience, godliness ; 
and to godliness, brotherly kindness ; and to broth- 
erly kindness, charity. 

I am crucified with Christ ; nevertheless I live ; 
yet not I, but Christ liveth in me ; and the life 
which I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of 
the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself for 
me. 

Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain; 
Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue ; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew. 

61. 
Exception. If antithesis is expressed, one mem- 
ber will require the rising and the other the falling 
slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

I could honor thy courage, but I detest thy 
crimes. 

They slight my mean birth ; I despise their 
mean characters. 

iTou were paid to fight against Alexander ; not 
to rail at him. 

Let us retract when we can ; not when we must. 

It was by industry, perseverance and integrity 
that he obtained his political eminence ; not by 
partizan tricks, chicanery and fraud, as most men 
of the dominant party obtain and retain their po- 
sition and influence now. 

62. 

RULE III. 

Definite Interrogative Sentences are delivered 
with the rising slide, commencing below the key 
and ascendinci: above it. 



400 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Note 1. If the sentence is long, consisting of sev- 
eral members, it should be commenced with the 
pitch far below the key, and ascending through the 
first member it may conclude with the bend ; the 
second member should commence with the pitch 
slightly higher than the first, and ascending 
throuo'h this member, it terminates with a bend 
somewhat higher than in the first member ; and so 
on through all the successive members to the end 
of the entire sentence. 

Note 2. Emphasis is generally given in definite 
questions by the lower circumflex. 

63. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you say he walked to town yesterday ? 

Remarh. Let successive scholars give the prece- 
ding sentence with the emphasis on each of the 
successive words, beginning with the first. 

Could not this man who opened the eyes of the 
blind, have caused that even this man should not 
have died ? 

Has not he himself, have not all the martyrs 
after him, poured forth their blood in the conflict ? 

Are despots alone, to be reproached for unfeel- 
ing indiflerence, to the tears and blood of their sub- 
jects ; are not republican rulers equally respon- 
sible ? 

Have the principles on which you ground the 
reproach on cabinets and kings, no practical influ- 
ence or binding force on cabinets and presidents? 

Shall we acquire the means of efl'ectual resist- 
ance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging 
the delusive phantom of hope, until our enemies 
shall have bound us hand and foot ? 



VOCAL CULTURE. 401 

Can we ever hope to witness on cartli a pure and 
holy generation, while even parents utter their pol- 
luting levities in the hearing of their own children ; 
and vice and humor and gaiety are all indiscrimi- 
nately blended into one conversation ; and a loud 
laugh is ever ready to regale the man who can pros- 
titute his powers of entertainment to the lowest 
species of profligacy and lasciviousness ? 

64. 
Note. If a circumstance follows an interrogative, 
the same slide is continued through the circum- 
stance. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you arrive in town this mornins: ? said the 
teacher to James. 

" Will you examine my work on Grymnastics? " 
shouted Mr. Smith to a group of boys — who seemed 
adepts in the science already. 

65. 
Exception 1. A definite interrogative usea as an 
exclamation, may take the falling slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

"Was it not terrible ! Can it be possible ! Is it 
possible that my son should do such a thing as 
that ! Could he think of returning under such 
circumstances ! 

66. 

Exception 2. If a definite interrogative is re- 
peated, for the sake of being more distinctly un- 
derstood, or for the sake of emphasis, it may take 
the falling slide. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Jolin. Did you come from Cincinnati yesterday ? 
Will Sir ? 



n 



402 VOCAL CULTURE. 

John. Did you come from Cincinnati^ yesterday? 
Has the gentleman done ? Has he completely 
done f 

67. 

Exception 3. In a series of definite interrogative 
sentences, the last may take the falling slide. 

Note. If the answers are given in a series of 
definite questions, they may be delivered with the 
rising slide, and lower circumfiex on the emphatic 
word, except the last, which requires the perfect 
close, 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Do you know me, sir? Am I Dromio ? 
Am I your man? Am I myself ? 

Am I not an apostle ? Am I not free ? Have 
I not seen Jesus Christ our Lord ? Are not ye my 
work in the Lord ? 

Are they Hebrews ? So am I. Are they Is- 
raelites? So am I. Are they the seed of Abra- 
ham? So am I. Are they the ministers of Christ? 
I am more. 

Are you poor, and likely to want for necessary 
food ? The followers of Christ are, surely, more 
liberal than mere worldlings. Are you exposed to 
sickness and bodily pain ? True Christians have 
ever manifested their love to Christ by ministering 
to him in the persons of the afflicted and distressed. 
Are you mourning over the sins and follies of a mis- 
spent life ? Jesus is ready to receive, even to the ut- 
termost, all that come to him in penitence and faith. 
Are you writhing under the anguish of blighted 
affections, and disappointed hopes ? In Jesus you 
find an object worthy of your heart's best afiections, 
and in his promises you may entertain such hopes 
as the wealth and power of this world can never 
realize. Do you desire eternal life f He alone has 
this boon to bestow. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 403 

68. 

RULE IV. 

Indefinite interrogative sentences are delivered 
with the falling slide ; or with the rising slide to 
the emphatic word, and this taking the upper cir- 
cumflex, with the falling slide to the end of the 
sentence. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

What stranger came into our school this morn- 
ing ? Where did he come from ? When will he 
visit us again ? 

Why ! What evil hath he done ? 
Who hath warned you to flee from the wrath to 
come ? 

69. 

Note. When the indefinite interrogative is suc- 
ceeded by a circumstance in the same sentence, the 
latter is delivered with the continuation of the 
same slide with the former. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

AYho will come to our relief? said the terrified 
woman, as the flames approached the place where 
she stood with her babe in her arms. 

When shall I be set free ? said the dying man, 
with hope lighting up his countenance, to the phy- 
sician who stood at his bedside. 

70. 

Note. In a compound indefinite interrogative 
sentence, the successive simple or complex inter- 
rogatives are delivered each with a falling slide, 
commencing and ending somewhat lower than that 
of the preceding. 



L 



404 VOCAL CULTURE. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

By what title do you, Naso, sit on that chair 
and preside in judgment? by what right, Attius, 
do you accuse, or I defend ? whence all this so- 
lemnity and pomp of judges, and clerks, and offi- 
cers, of which this house is full ? 

Who is this that darkeneth words without knowl- 
edge? Where wast thou when I laid the founda- 
tions of the earth? Who hath laid the measure 
thereof, if thou knowest? or who hath stretched 
the line upon it ? Whereupon are the foundations 
thereof fastened? or who hath laid the corner 
stone thereof? 

How shall I attempt to follow them through the 
succession of great events, which a rare and kind 
Providence crowded into their lives ? how shall I 
attempt to count all the links of that bright chain 
which binds the perilous hour of their first efforts 
for freedom, with the rich enjoyment of its con- 
summation ? how shall I attempt to enumerate the 
posts they filled, and the trusts they discharged, at 
home and abroad ? 

71. 

RULE V. 

Indirect interrogative sentences are delivered 
with the circumflex inflections on the emphatic 
words. 

Kote 1. The circumflexes in this class of sentences 
require a greater flexibility of the voice than else- 
where. When two are given in one sentence, the 
first is generally the upper, and the second the 
lower, rising above the key. 

Note 2. The same indirect interrogative may be 
correctly delivered in two or more difi"erent ways, by 
varying the application and use of the circumflexes. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 405 

72. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL 

You came to town yesterday? did you not? 

Your brother wrote that article in the Tribune 
respecting the eleventh commandment? 

Mr. Smith's speculations in western lands have 
nearly ruined him, have they not? 

Surely, you will not think that I was guilty of 
such an indiscretion as that ? 

You will grant him that small favor, I hope ; 
even, though he has injured you ? 

Only one failed of obtaining a first grade certifi- 
cate, eh ? Who was he ? 

John Turpin. 

John Turpin ? Why, he was the best scholar in 
his class. He, surely, didn't fail on any of the 
questions proposed? 

Oh, no, but John has a mind of his own, you 
know, and the examiners were incapable of distin- 
guishing between independence and ignorance. 

Then John, you think, could have given the ex- 
aminers some valuable instruction ? 

Oh, no, they are too wise for that; they say, they 
are there to examine the candidates ; and not to be 
examined or taught hy the candidates. 

73. 

JVote. Interrogative exclamations and words re- 
peated as an echo to the thought, are delivered with 
one or the other of the circumflexes, according to 
the feeling designed to be expressed. 

Remark. In many reading books, expressions 
of this class are marked for the rising inflection. 
This delivery does not agree with usage. 



406 VOCAL CULTURE. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Prince Henry. What 's the matter ? 
Falstaff. What 's the matter ? Here be four of 
us have taken a thousand pounds this morning. 
Prince H. Where is it, Jack ? Where is it? 
Fah. Where is it ? Taken from us, it is. 

And you call that fellow a poet, do you? A 
poet ! He could never even make the rhymes jin- 
gle in his doggerel. A poet ! Ha ! ha ! ha ! that's 
the last thing I ever should think of calling him. 

74. 

RULE YI. 

Double interrogative sentences are delivered with 
the rising slide to the disjunctive or, and with the 
falling slide from it. 

A^ote. The word or is generally delivered in the 
same pitch as the commencement of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Did you arrive last evening, or this morning ? 

Art thou he that should come, or do we look for 
another ? 

Is there nothing that whispers to that right hon- 
orable gentleman, that the crisis is too big, that the 
times are too gigantic, to be ruled by the little 
hackneyed and every-day means of ordinary cor- 
ruption ; or are we to believe that he has within 
himself a conscious feeling, that disqualifies him 
for rebuking the ill-timed selfishness of his new 
allies ? 

75. 

RULE VII. 

Compellatives in familar discourse are delivered 
with the rising slide, but in earnest or respectful 
discourse, may be delivered with the ftillino- slif\\ 



VOCAL CULTURE. 407 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

John, what are you about there ? 

Sammy, my fine fellow, you are just the one I 
wanted to see. 

Mary, I should hardly have thought that of you. 

Friends, countrymen and lovers, hear me for my 
cause, and be silent that you may hear. 

Remark. If the compellatives in the two last and 
similar examples are given with the falling slide, 
and with the pitch much depressed on each sun 
ceeding word, the delivery will be much more im- 
pressive than with the rising slide on each; or than 
with the rising slide on all but the last, and the 
fallino- slide on that. 

Mr. President, Ladies, Gentlemen, and Friends: 
This is surely no ordinary occasion. 

Ye hypocrites ! ye vipers ! who shall deliver you 
from the wrath to come ? 

76. 

RULE YIII. 

Parentheses are delivered with inflections accord- 
ing to preceding rules; but with increased rate, de- 
pressed pitch, and diminished force. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that 
know the law,) that the law hath dominion over a 
man as lonsr as he liveth? 

She had managed this matter so well (oh ! she 
was the most artful of women !) that my father's 
heart was gone before I even suspected it was in 
danger. 

18 



408 VOCAL CULTURE. 

77 

RULE IX. 

Mixed sentences are delivered according to the 
rules applicable to each of their parts. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

He kept repeating in an under tone: Gone? 
Gone ? is it possible that she has gone with some 
one else ? 

My friends often asked : What are you going to 
do with yourself when you get an education? Are 
you going to come out a poet or a ninny ? 

78. 

RULE X 

Poetry is delivered with the same inflections and 

emphasis as the same class of sentences requires in 

prose. 

Nota Bene. Let there be no recognition pf the 

metrical construction in the delivery of poetry, un- 
less it is the design to sing it. 

Remark. Poetry, properly constructed, will 
yield, really, the most pleasure to the ear, when 
these directions are carefully complied with. 

METHOD OF DRILL FOR POETRY. 

Let the teacher select such easy, flowing, melo- 
dious pieces as are most likely to be sung by schol- 
ars, rather than read; and let him contrast the 
faulty methods of delivery with the correct, before 
he shall call on the scholars to read them. If still 
any pupil shall be governed by the measure more 
than by the sense in his delivery, let the teacher 
deliver the same passage — and caricature the fault, 
saying when he has done: " You did not read half 
as badly as that, but somewhat in that manner. I 



VOCAL CULTURE. 409 

wish you to try and avoid it altogether. You may 
read that passage again, if you are willing." 

79. 

EMPHASIS. 

Emphasis. Any means by which a word, phrase, 
or sentence, is rendered more impressive than the 
words, phrases, or sentences with which it stands 
connected. 

Ordixary Emphasis. That placed on a word or 
phrase, without relation to any other emphasized 
word, phrase, or sentence. 

Antithetic Emphasis. That placed on two or 
more related words or phrases in different members 
of a sentence, to exhibit the relation more clearly. 

Explanation. As antithesis is the most com- 
mon relation thus exhibited, it gives its name to 
this class of emphasis. 

Cumulative Emphasis. That placed on succes- 
sive words or phrases in the same member of a sen- 
tence, to make them increasingly impressive. 

Deferred Emphasis. That which is retained in 
the delivery of a succession of particulars of in- 
creasing importance, till the utterance of the last. 

CoNVEXTioxAL Emphasis. That given in some 
common expressions by general usage, without re- 
gard to the sense. 

80. 

METHODS OF GIVING EMPHASIS. 

RemarJc. These are so various and complicated, 
that it will require too much space to give a com- 
plete analysis of them. The more common meth- 
ods are given in the outline on page 365. It will 



410 VOCAL CULTURE. 

be my purpose, only, to give sucli examples here, 
as will illustrate, in as brief a space as possible, 
the different classes of Emphasis, and as will af- 
ford the teacher the means of drilling his class in 
most of the methods comprised in the outline, and 
in any other that may occur to him. 

81. 

METHOD OF DRILL IN EMPHASIS. 

1. Let the teacher select such passages from this 
book, or any other, as shall illustrate the different 
CLASSES of emphasis, and give the proper delivery of 
one example; then call on the class to give in con- 
cert the same passage; then let him call on indi- 
viduals to give the same or other similar passages, 
till every one is able to disiuiguisli the different 
classes of emphasis and to deliver them properly. 

2. Let the teacher select such passages as shall 
illustrate the different methods of emphasis, and i 
pursue a similar course as with the classes, and \ 
dwell on each method long enough, and with a suf- I 
ficient variety of examples, so that its propriety and i 
force shall be acknowledged and felt by the class, | 
and the majority of the class shall be able to avail j 
themselves of the different methods, in a measure, 
spontaneously, in the delivery of selected or origi- 
nal pieces. j 

Remarh. No department of vocal culture affords | 

so appropriate a field for the cultivation of good : 

taste, and judicious management of the voice and j 
expression of the countenance, as that of emphasis. 

If never before, here is the place to remove all sing- | 
Bong tones, to extinguish all boarding school affec- 



VOCAL CULTURE. 411 

tation, to infuse so much vivacity, feeling and soul 
into the pupil, that all tendency to a mechanical 
delivery shall be lost, in his appreciation of his 
subject, and in his effort to arouse suitable sympa- 
thy in his audience. 

82. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN CLASSES OF EMPHASIS. 

ORDINARY EMPHASIS. 

Did you say that I was not in school yesterday? 

Remark. Ordinary Emphasis may, in different 
readings of this question, be placed on any word in 
it; and the drill requires that every scholar shall be 
able to read this or any similar sentence, and place 
the emphasis as he is directed by the trainer. 

JS"© man may put off the Law of God. Evil com- 
munications corrupt good manners. Do you think 
you will walk to town to-day ? 

83. 

ANTITHETIC EMPHASIS. 

Single Antithesis. \ 

It is better to mend our faults than to hide them. \ 

He who cannot hear a joke should never give i 
one. 

I come to hurij Caesar, not to praise him. 

It is sown in weakness; it is raised in power. It 
is sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual 
body. 

Double Antithesis. 
It is sown in weahicss ; it is raised in 2'>oiver. 
It is sown a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual 
body. 

It is better to trust in the Lord than to put confi' 
dencc in Princes. 



412 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Altliougli t\\e fig-tree shall not blossom, neither 
shall fruit be found on the vines, the labor of the 
olive shall fail, and the fields shall i/ield no meat, 
the fiock shall be cut off from the fold, and there 
shall be no herd in the stalls ; yet I will rejoice in 
the Lord. I will joi/ in the God of my salvation. 

Remark. This passage admits of a great variety 
of emphasis. It may be read with the ordinary 
rather than with the antithetic, or with the single 
antithesis rather than with the double. It may be 
read also with the triple antithesis. 
Triple Antithesis. 

She always called the misfortunes of others, judg- 
ments; while she considered the calamities that be- 
fell herself, afiiictions. 

A friend cannot be known in prosperity, an en- 
emy cannot be hidden in adversity. 

84. 

CUMULATIVE EMPHASIS. 

I tell you, though you, though the Whole World, 
though an ANGEL FROM HEAVEN, were to 
declare the truth of it, I would not believe it. 

Were I an x\.nierican, as I am an Englishman, 
while a single foreign troop remained in my coun- 
try, I would never lay down my arms. Never ! 
Never!! NEVER!!! 

We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we 
have SUPPLICATED, we have PROSTRATED our- 
selves at the foot of the throne. 

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am 
for the declaration. 

85. 

DEFERRED EMPHASIS. 

The knowledge, power, wisdom, holiness, and 
goodness of God are all unbounded. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 413 

Remark. Any of the examples given under 
cumulative, may be used as examples for deferred 
emphasis. 

86. 

CONTENTIONAL EMPHASIS. 

Dry Groods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so 
forth. 

From day to day ; from man to man. 

Remarh. To show that the emphasis is conven- 
tional., and not ordinary, in these examples, I will 
give others in which the ordinary emphasis may 
be given under similar circumstances. 

Dry G-oods, Groceries, Yankee Notions, and so 
on to the end of the list. 

From everlasting to everlasting, He is the same. 

87. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL ON THE METHODS OF 
EMPHASIS. 

Remark. Almost any of the preceding examples 
may be used for illustrating emphasis as effected by 
elevation of pitch, and increase of force. 

DEPRESSION OF PITCH AND DIMINUTION OF FORCE. 

You know that you are Brutus, that speak this, 
Or, hy the gods, this speech were else your last. 

Yet half I hear the parting spirit sigh, 
" It is a dread and awful thing to die. " 

DEPRESSION OF PITCH AND INCREASE OF FORCE. 

1 scorn your proffered treaty ; the pale face I defy, 
Revenge is stamped upon my spear, and hlood my 
battle cry. 

If influenced by local pride, or gansjrened by 
State jealousy, I get up here to abate a tithe of a 



414 VOCAL CULTURE. 

hair from his just character, and just fame — may 
onij tongue cleave to tlie roof of my iiioutli. 

88/ 

WHISPKR. 

And the deep thunder peal on peal afar, 
And near the beat of the alarming drum, 
Roused up the soldier, ere the morning star. 
While thronged the citizens with terror dumb. 
Or whispering, with white lips, " Thcfoe^ they come, 
they come.'' 

INCREASE OR DIMINUTION OP RATE. 

Remark. A sufficient variety of examples to il- 
lustrate these methods may be found in connection 
with other methods. 

CHANGE OF ACCENT, 

He shall increase, but I shall tZecrease. 

There is a difference between giving and for- 
giving. 

In this species of composition p/awsibility is 
much more desirable than ^:)ro6ability. 

89. 

EMPHATIC SWEEP. 

Are not you, sir, who sit in that chair, is not he, 
our venerable colleague near you, are you not both 
the predestined objects of punishment and ven- 
geance ? Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, 
what are you, what can you be, while the power 
of England yet remains, but out-laws? 

90. 

EMPHATIC PAUSE. 

Woe, — woe, — woe, — to the inhabitants of the 
earth. 

Strike — till the last armed foe expires, 
Strike — for your altars and your fires. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 415 

Strike — for the green graves of your sires, 
God — and your native land. 

0, woman ! — in our hours of ease 
Uncertain, — co}'", — and hard to please, 
And — variable — as the shade, 
By the light quivering aspen made ; 
When pain and anguish wring the brow, 
A ministering angel — thou. 

The war that for a space did fail, 

Now trebly thundering, swelled the gale, 

And — Stanley — was the cry. 

I know there is not a man here, — who would not 
rather see a general conflagration — sweej) over the 
land, — or an earthquake — sink it, — than one jot or 
tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. For 
myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, 
moved you, that George Washington be appointed 
commander of the forces raised, or to be raised, for 
the defense of American liberty; may my right 
hand forget her cunning — and my tongue cleave to 
the roof of my mouth — if I hesitate — or waver — in 
the support I give him. 

91. 

TONE. 

Tone. That c|uality of the voice which depends 
on the proper, or improper use of the articulatory 
and vocal organs ; also, on their healthy or dis- 
eased condition. 

Pure Tone. That clear, ringing, bell-like sound 
which can result only from a proper arrangement 
and healthy condition of the vocal and articulatory 
organs. 

Remark 1. If the trainer has been competent 

and faithful thus far, his pupils will by this time 
18* 



416 VOCAL CULTURE. 

not only understand the nature of pure tone, 
but they will possess the ability and the desire to 
use it. 

Remark 2. The nasal, guttural, aspirated and 
husky tones should all be avoided — scrupulously 
avoided — in ordinary and protracted delivery ; but 
each may be used with good effect to give expres- 
sion to some passion or emotion, as will be illus- 
trated in the following examples. 

92. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN IMPURE TONES. 
NASAL TONE. 

And this Ccesar has become a god, and Cassiu3 
a wixtched creature. 

How like a faxmiing 'publican he looks, 
I hate him, for he is a Christian. 

GUTTURAL TONE. 

Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! 
Thou little valiant, great in villainy ! 
Thou ever strong upon the stronger side ! 

ASPIRATED TONE. 

Oh ! mercy ! mercy on us ! What is that? Didn't 
you hear it? Don't you see it? Oh! Mercy! 
Mercy ! The Lord have mercy on us ! 

TREMULOUS TONE. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 
Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door 
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span, 
Oh ! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store. 

93. 

STYLES OF DELIVERY. 

Style of Delivery. That peculiar adaptation 
of Key, Force, Rate, Inflections, Emphasis, Tone 
and Personation, required to impress any given 



~~1 



VOCAL CULTURE. 417 

style of thought and feeling; to av\-aken any partic- 
ular kind of emotion, or to represent any passion, 
habit, or usage, whether individual, provincial, or 
national. 

Remarh. Instead of definitions one or two brief 
examples will be given for drill, under each style 
of delivery. It is expected here, as elsewhere, that 
each scholar will be drilled on each example given. 
It is found to serve a better purpose to drill all the 
pupils of a class on one or two appropriate exam- 
ples, than each one on a different example. It is 
well to require the whole class to memorize one or 
more of the examples every day, that they may 
give them without the book. 

31ETH0D OF DRILL. 

1. Let the pupil who is called on, for reading or 
speaking, take his place in a proper manner on the 
rostrum. Let his position, bow, and manner of 
holdino' the book receive due attention. If he 
shall not succeed in complying with the directions 
given by the teacher, let him be excused, while the 
teacher gives an example on the rostrum of the 
manner in which he would have the pupil perform 
his part. If necessary, the teacher can caricature 
the errors of the pupil, and awkwardness in general, 
always encouraging the pupil, by assuring him 
that his errors are not as gross as those of the car- 
icature. 

2. The class may be called on for criticism in 
the case of each pupil under drill, before the teacher 
shall offer any corrections. 



418 VOCAL CULTURE. 

3. The exercise may be varied by concert read- 
ing, or concert speaking of any one of the exam 
pies given ; the teacher having first read or spoken 
the piece alone, then in concert with the class ; the 
class will then read or speak the piece without the 
teacher; while he gives his special attention to the 
most faulty. 

4. Gesticulation may be introduced into these 
concert exercises with good effect; the teacher al- 
ways leading the way by first giving the example 
with appropriate gestures, before he shall require 
them of the class. 

94. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL. 

Narrative Style. 

The late Hev. Mr. W. relates the following cir- 
cumstance in one of his journals: Wednesday, 9th. 
I rode over to a neighboring town to wait on a 
Justice of the Peace, a man of candor and under- 
standing, before whom, I was informed, their an- 
gry neighbors had carried a whole load of these 
new heretics, (the Methodists.) But when he 
asked them what they had done, there was a deep 
silence, for that was a point the persecutors had 
forgot. At length, one said : " Why, they pretend 
to be better than other people ; and besides, thc}^ 
pray from morning to night." The Justice asked, 
" But have they done nothing else ? " " Yes sir," 
said an old man, " an't please your worshij^, they 
have convarted my wife. Till she went among 
them, she had such a tongue ! and now she is as 
quiet as a lamb." " Carry them back ! carry them 
back ! " said the Justice, "and let them convert all 
the scolds in the town." 



VOCAL CULTURE. 419 

95. 

Didactic Style. 

There is nothing more characteristic of a true 
Christian than humility. It is the first lesson that 
he learns in the school of Christ, and is the source 
of contentment and solid peace of mind. If he 
hears that any one has reviled him, he is ready to 
say, with the philosopher, "Had he known me bet- 
ter, he would have said worse things of me than 
that." The fiercest storms of adversity blow over 
him. Humility gives a pliancy to his mind, which 
saves it by yielding to the force it cannot resist ; 
like the weak and bending reed, that weathers out 
the tempest, which fells the tall and sturdy oak. 

In the evening of the day on which Sir Eadly 
Wilmot was appointed Chief Justice of England, 
one of his sons, a youth of seventeen, attended him 
to his bedside. " Now," said he, " my son, I will 
tell you a secret worth knowing, and remem- 
bering. The elevation I have met with in life, 
particularly the last instance of it, has not been 
owing to my superior merit or abilities, but to my 
humilifi/, to my not having set myself up above 
others ; and to a uniform endeavor to pass 
throusrh life void of offence toward Grod and man." 
Thus humility is the way to honor. 

96. 
Persuasive Style. 

Whatever plans of liberality you may have before 
you, it is well not to procrastinate, but to improve the 
first opportunity of executing them. How much 
more satisfaction does the truly beneficent man de- 
rive from his daily appropriation of his wealth than 
did Stephen Girard in hoarding property for some 
other person to appropriate it. None can so well 
use property as he who earns it. Suppose Grirard had 
himself established the Asylum for Orphans. How 
much satisfaction he must have derived from the 



420 VOCAL CULTURE. 

comfort, improvement, and promise of the thousands 
that his vast wealth might have rescued from penury 
and crime. Could he now witness the gross misap- 
l^li cation in lavish expenditure of that which he gath- 
ered so carefully, and guarded so scrupulously, how 
keen and continuous the pangs would be, that he 
had not given the money its just direction by his own 
administration while living. 

I repeat it, then, my friends, enjoy your own 
means by applying them to such objects of charity 
and usefulness as may seem most worthy of them, 
and as will yield you the greater amount of pleasure 
in the ajDpropriate and economical disposition of them. 

97. 
Argumentative Style. 

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give 
my hand and my heart to this vote. It is true, in- 
deed, that in the beginning, we aimed not at inde- 
pendence. But there is a divinity which shapes our 
ends. The injustice of England has driven us to 
arms; and blinded to her own interest, she has obsti- 
nately persisted, till independence is now within our 
grasp. We have but to reach forth to it, and it is 
ours. Why then should we defer the declaration? 
Is any man so weak, as now to hope for a reconcilia- 
tion with England, which shall leave either safety to 
the country and its liberties, or security to his own 
life, and his own honor? Are not you, sir, who sit in 
that chair, is not he, our venerable colleague, near 
you, are you not both, already the proscribed and 
predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? 
Cut off from all hope of royal clemency, what are you, 
what can yon be, while the power of England re- 
mains, but outlaws^ 

If we postpone independence, do we mean to carry 
on, or to give up the war? Do we mean to submit, 
and consent that w^e shall be ground to powder, and 
our country and its rights trodden down in the dust? 
I know we do not mean to submit. We never shall 
submit! Do we intend to violate that most solemn 
obligation ever entered into by men, that plighting, 
before God, of our sacred honor to Washington, when, 
putting him forth to incur the dangers of Avar, as well 



VOCAL CULTURE. 421 

as the political hazards of the times, we promised to 
adhere to him in every extremity, with our fortunes 
and our hves? I know there is not a man here, who 
woukl not rather see a general conflagration sweep 
over the land, or an earthquake sink it, than one jot 
or tittle of that plighted faith fall to the ground. 
For myself, having twelve months ago, in this place, 
moved you, that, George Washington be appointed 
commander of the forces raised, or to be raised for 
the defense of American liberty, may my right hand 
forget her cunning, and my tongue cleave to the roof 
of my mouth, if I hesitate or waver in the support I 
give him. 

98. 
Colloquial Style. 

{Scene. — Dr. Ctregory's Study. Enter a plump Glasgow 
merchant.) 

Patient. Good morning, Dr. Gregory! I'm just come 
into Edinburgh about some law business, and I 
thought when I was here, at any rate, I might just as 
weel take your advice, sir, about my trouble. 

Dr. Pray, sir, sit down. And now, my good sir, 
what may your trouble be? 

Pa. Indeed, doctor, I 'm not very sure ; but I 'm 
thinking it 's a kind of weakness that makes me dizzy 
at times, and a kind of pinlding about my stomach ; 
— I 'm just na right. 

Dr. You are from the west-country, I should sup- 
pose, sir? 

Pa. Yes, sir, from Glasgow. 

Dr. Ay; pray, sir, are you a glutton? 

Pa. God forbid, sir; I 'm one of the plainest men 
living in all the west-country. 

Dr. Tlien, perhaps, you are a drunkard? 

Pa. No, Dr. Gregory; thank God, no one can a,c- 
cuse me of that. I 'm of the dissenting persuasion, 
doctor, and an elder; so you may suppose I 'm na 
drunkard. 

Dr. I '11 suppose no such thing till you tell me 
your mode of life. I 'm so much puzzled with your 
symptoms, sir, that I should wish to hear in detail 
what you do eat and drink. When do you breakfast, 
and what do you take at it? 



422 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Pa. I breakfast at nine o'clock; take a cup of 
coffee, and one or two cups of tea, a couple of eggs, 
and a bit of ham or kippered salmon, or, maj'' be, 
both, if they 're good, and two or three rolls and but- 
ter. 

Dr. Do you eat no honey, or jelly, or jam, at 
breakfast? 

Pa. Oh, yes, sir! but I don't count that as any- 
thing. 

Dr. Come, this is a very moderate breakfast. 
What kind of a dinner do you make? 

Pa. Oh, sir, I eat a very plain dinner indeed. 
Some soup, and some fish, and a little plain roast or 
boiled; for I dinna care for made dishes: I think, 
some way^ they never satisfy the appetite. 

Dr. You take a little pudding then, and after- 
wards some cheese? 

Pa. Oh, yes! though I don't care much about 
them. 

Dr. You t^ike a glass of ale or porter with your 
cheese? 

Pa. Yes, one or the other; but seldom both. 

Dr. You west-country people generally take a 
glass of Highland whisky after dinner? 

Pa. Yes, we do ; it 's good for digestion. 

Dr. Do you take any wine during dinner? 

Pa. Yes, a glass or two of sherry; but I 'm indif- 
ferent as to wine during dinner. I drink a good deal 
of beer. 

Dr. What quantity of port do you drink? 

Pa. Oh, very little; not above half a dozen glasses 
or so. 

Dr. In the west-country, it is impossible, I hear, 
to dine without punch? 

Pa. Yes, sir; indeed, 't is punch we drink chiefly; 
but for myself, unless I happen to hp.ve a friend with 
me, I never take more than a couple of tumblers or 
so, and that 's moderate. 

Dr. Oh, exceedingly moderate indeed ! You then, 
after this slight repast, take some tea and bread and 
butter? 

Pa. Yes, before I go to the counting-house to read 
the evening letters. 

Dr. And on your return you take supj)er, I sup- 
pose? 



VOCAL CULTURE. 423 

Pa. No, sir, I canna be said to take supper; just 
something before going to bed ; — a rizzered haddock, 
or a bit of toasted cheese, or a half-hundred of oys- 
ters, or the like o' that, and may be, two-thirds of a 
bottle of ale; but I take no regular supper. 

99. 

Remark 1. It will be well at this stage, in the 
progress of a class, to take up the reading and 
speaking of poetry. Suitable pieces in the various 
styles can be selected from almost any reading 
book in use. For want of room, such pieces can- 
not be given here. 

Remark 2. Scholars may be requested to select 
favorite pieces, in prose or verse, for class or indi- 
vidual drill. 

Humorous Style. 

Remark. The varieties of the humorous style 
are numerous. One of the most common, only, 
will be given. 

Remark. Almost any piece may be rendered 
humorous, or ludicrous, by assuming some style in 
its delivery, other than that adapted to it ; for ex- 
ample : apply the ministerial style, somewhat ex- 
aggerated, to any of the preceding examples; again, 
apply the argumentative style of delivery to any 
narrative piece, or vice versa; the pathetic style to 
a denunciatory piece, or vice versa. Let it be tried. 

100. 

Bah ! that 's the third umbrella gone since Christ- 
mas. What were you to do ? Why, let him go home 
in the rain, to be sure. I am very certain there was 
nothing about him that could spoil. Take cold, in- 
deed! He does n't look like one of the sort to take 
cold. Besides, he'd have better taken cold than ta- 
ken our umbrella. — Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle? 



424 VOCAL CULTURE. 

I say, "lo you hear the rain ? And as 1 am alive, if it 
is n'f St. Swithin's day ! Do you hear it against the 
windows ? Nonsense ; you don't impose upon me ; 
you can't be asleep with such a shower as that ! Do 
you hear it, I say ? Oh ! you do hear it ! — Well, that's 
a pretty flood, I think, to last for six weeks ; and no 
stirring all the time out of the house. Pooh ! don't 
think me a fool, Mr. Caudle ; don't insult me ; he re- 
turn the umbrella ! Anybody'" would think you Avere 
bor)"^ yesterday. As if anybody ever did return an 
umbrella ! There ; do you hear it ? Worse and 
worse. Cats and dogs, and for six weeks ; and no um- 
brella. 

\ should like to know how the children are to go 
to school to-morrow. They shan't go through such 
w' ather ; I am determined. No ; they shall stop at 
hf me and never learn anything, (the blessed crea- 
t>';fes!) sooner than go and get wet! And when they 
gT jw up, I wonder who they '11 have to thank for 
knowing nothing ; who, indeed, but their father. 
/ eople who can't feel for their own children ought 
lever to be fathers. 

101. 

JPlaintive. 

" Oh ! cease not yet to beat, thou vital urn ! 
Wait, gushing life, oh, wait my love's return ! 
Hoarse barks the wolf, the vulture screams from far, 
The angel, pity, shuns the walks of war ; 
Oh ! spare, ye war hounds, spare their tender age, 
On me, on me," she cried, " exhaust your rage." 
Then, with weak arms her weeping babes caressed. 
And, sighing, hid them in her blood-stained vest. 

102. 

Denunciatory. 

I ask now, Verres, what thou hast to advance 
against this charge ? Will you pretend to deny it ? 
Will you pretend that anything false, that even any- 
thing exaggerated is alleged against you ? Had any 
prince, or any State committed the same outrage 
against the privileges of Roman citizens, should we 
not think we had reason for declaring immediate war 
against them ? What punishment, then, ought to be 



VOCAL CULTURE. 425 

inflicted on a tyrannical and wicked prretor, who 
dared, at no greater distance than Sicily, within sight 
of the Italian coast, to put to the infamous death of 
crucifixion that unfortunate and innocent citizen, 
Publius Gavins Cosanus, only for having asserted his 
privilege of citizenship ? The unhappy man, arrested 
as he was going to embark for his native country, is 
brought before the wicked preetor. With eyes dart- 
ing fury, and a countenance distorted with cruelty, 
he orders the helpless victim of his rage to be stripped, 
and rods to be brought, and the infamous punish- 
ment to be inflicted. 

103. 
ContempfAious. 

Banished from Rome ! What's banished but set free? 

"Tried and convicted traitor !" Who says this ? 

Who '11 prove it at his peril on my head ? 

Banished ! I thank you for it. It breaks my chaiix. 

I held some slack allegiance till this hour, 

But now my sword 's my own. Smile on, my lords I 

I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 

Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 

I have within my heart's core shut up. 

To leave you in your lazy dignities; 

But here I stand and scoff you ! Here I fling 

Hatred and full defiance in your face ! 

Your Consul's merciful — for this, all thanks ; 

He dares not touch one hair of Cataline. 

104. 

Ironical. 

" But, Mr. Speaker, we have a right to tax Amer- 
ica." Oh, inestimable right ! Oh, wonderful, trans- 
cendent right! the assertion which has cost this 
country thirteen provinces, six islands, one hundred 
thousand lives, and seventy millions of money. Oh ! 
invaluable right { for the sake of which we have sacri- 
ficed our rank among nations, our importance abroad, 
and our happiness at home ! Oh, right, more dear to 
us than our existence ! which has already cost us so 



426 VOCAL CULTURE. 

much, and which seems likely to cot-t us our all. In- 
fatuated man ! miserable and undone country ! not 
to know that the claim of right, without the power of 
enforcing it, is nugatory, idle. We have a right to 
tax America. This is the profound logic which com- 
prises the whole chain of his reasoning. 

Not inferior to this was the wisdom of him who re- 
solved to shear the wolf What, shear a wolf ! have 
you considered the resistance, the difficuUy, the dan- 
ger of the attempt ? No, says the mad man, I have 
considered nothing but the right. Man has a right 
of dominion over the beasts of the forest, and there- 
fore I will shear the wolf 

105. 

Angry. 

Ye dark, designing knaves 1 ye murderers ! parri- 
cides ! how dare you tread upon the earth, which has 
drank the blood of slaughtered innocent^s, shed by 
your hands ; how dare you breathe the air which 
wafted to the ear of heaven the groans of those who 
fell a sacrifice to your accursed ambition ! But if the 
laboring earth doth not expand her jaws, if the air you 
breathe is not commissioned to be the minister of 
death, yet hear it and tremble ! The eye of heaven 
penetrates the darkest chambers of the soul ; traces 
the leading clue through all the labyrinths which 
your industrious folly has devised ; and you, however 
you may have screened yourselves from human eyes, 
must be arraigned, must lift your hands, red with 
the blood of those whose death you have procured, at 
the tremendous bar of God. 

106. 

PERSONATING STYLE OF DELIVERY. 

Remarh. The personation of the passions is 
somewhat different from the delivery of passages 
when really under the influence of such passions, 
as has been supposed in the preceding sections. 
For instance, the personation of Love, presupposes 
that the individual is under no restraint from any 



VOCAL CULTURE. 427 

observer; that he is alone, or only in the presence 
of the object of his affection. It is farther taken 
for granted by the audience, that every such per- 
sonation is somcAvhat over-acted, whereas in the 
former styles of delivery, directed really to the 
audience, no such overaction is tolerated. 

The Personating St7/Ie, therefore, may, perhaps, 
more properly be called the Caricaturing style, 
though not designed, in all instances, to provoke 
humor by any means. 

107. 
Love, 

Strange! that one lightly-whispered tone 

Is far, far sweeter unto me, 
Than all the sounds that kiss the earth 

Or breathe along the sea; 
But, lady, when thy voice I greet. 
Not heavenly music sounds so sweet. 

108. 

-Fear. 

Ah! what sound was that? — 

The trap-door fallen? and the spring-lock caught — 

"Well, have I not the key? — Of course I have! 

'Tis in this pocket — No. In this? — No. Then 

I left it at the bottom of the ladder — 

Ha! 'tis not there. Where then? — Ah mercy. Heaven! 

'T is in the lock outside? 

What 's to be done? 

Help, help ! Will no one hear? ! would that I 

Had not discharged old Simeon! — but he begged 

Each week for wages — would not give me credit. 

I'll try my strength upon the door — Despair ! 

I might as soon root up the eternal rocks 

As force it open. Am I here a prisoner, 

And no one in the house? — Horrible fate ! 

I sink — I faint beneath the bare conception. 



428 VOCAL CULTURE. 

109. 
Hate. 

How like a fawning publican he looks ! 

I hate him, for he is a Christian; 

But more, for that, in low simplicity, 

He lends out money gratis, and brings down 

The rate of usance with us in Venice. 

If I can catch him once upon the hip, 

I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him! 

He hates our sacred nation; and he rails, 

Even there where merchants most do congregate, 

On me, my bargains, and my well-won thrift, 

Which he calls interest. — Cursed be my tribe, 

If I forgive him. 

110. 
Anger. 

Thou slave ! thou wretch ! thou coward ! 
Thou little valiant, great in villainy! 
Thou ever strong upon the stronger side, 
Thou fortune's champion, thou dost never fight 
But when her humorous lady's hiss is by 
To teach thee safety! Thou art perjured too, 
And soothest up greatness! What a fool art thou, 
■ A ramping fool, to brag, and stamp, and sweat, 
Upon my party. Thou coldblooded slave, 
Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side? 
Been sworn my soldier? bidding me depend 
Upon my stars, thy fortune and thy strength? 
And dost thou now fall over to my foes? 
Thou wear a lion's hide? Doff it for shame, 
And hang a calfskin on those recreant limbs. 

111. 
PERSONIFICATION OF NATIONAL PECULIARITIES. 

Irish. 

O Mulligan. 'Pon me sowl, if it 's not yourself that 
I see. 

Sohersense. How now, Pat, what news? 

G BI. News! it's meself that's afther telling ye 
that! Ye see I 'm jist like a letther rite out of the 
mail, that's come by tiligraph, walking over the 
thrack like a staim taekittle; and sure as me name 



VOCAL CULTURE. 429 

is Pat O'Mulligan, that owld boy of a sthudent has 
made a diskivery in cliimistry that '11 make a great 
man of him all his days. And has not he been of- 
fered a dale of money for it, and a chance to be a 
teacher in the siminary? 

Sob. Why surely, Pat, you must be dreaming, for 
he was here but a short time since, and he said noth- 
ing about it. 

O M. The divil a bit am I a dhraming. It 's like 
the likes o' him to say niver a word at all, at all. 
Did he iver till how he supported the poor mither of 
his all the time he was afther studying the books? 
Shure and was n't he the dacentest boy this side of 
the ould counthry? Sure and it 's meself that 's just 
from the post office with news. 

112. 
Dutch. 

Mr. Foreman and Toder Jurymens: — Hans peen 
dried for Murder pefore you, and you must pring in 
te verdict; put it must pe 'cordin' to law. 

Der man he killed vash n't killed at all, as vash 
broved; he is in ter jail in Morristown, for sheep 
stealing. Put dat ish no matter; te law say ven ter 
ish a doubt you give him to ter brisoner; put here 
ter ish no doubt. Zo you see ter brisoner is guilty. 

Pesides, he is a great loafer. I have known him 
fifty years, and he has not done any work in all dat 
times; and dere ish no one depending upon him for 
dere living, for he ish no use for nopody. 

I dinks, derefore, Mr. Foreman, he petter pe hung 
next Fourth of July, as der militia is going to drain 
in anoder county, and dere will pe noting going on 
here. 

113. 

TRANSITION. 

Transitiox. a sudden change in the manner 
of delivery. 

Explanation, In commencing new paragraphs, 
or in personating several characters in the delivery 
of one piece, we find the most common and impor- 



! ! 



430 VOCAL CULTURE. 

tant use for Transition. There are many other 
forms of transition, however, some of which I shall 
exemplify. 

114. 

TRANSITION IN PARAGRAPHS. 

Remark. Most of our reading books being as 
absurdly divided into verses as is the Bible, this 
kind of transition is precluded. Appropriate ex- 
amples may be found on pages 419 — 20; others 
should be found by the teacher in some book, and 
all the pupils should be trained in this form of 
delivery. 

Eule. The transition from one paragraph to 
another, or from one topic of a, discourse to anoth- 
er, generally requires a loioer pitch, slower rate, 
and subdued force; also, a slight change in the po- 
sition on the stage. 

115. 

TRANSITION IN STYLE. 

Remark. Dialogue and colloquy afford the best 
examples of this form of transition ; though narra- 
tive pieces, having conversations interspersed, are 
often more difficult to deliver, requiring also a fre- 
quent transition from the narrative to the colloquial 
style. Examples of both kinds will be given. 

116. 

Transitions in Colloquial Style. 
\_^Sir Robert Bramble and Humphrey Dobbins.'] 

Sir R. I'll tell you what, Humphrey Dobbins, 
there is not a syllable of sense in all you have been 
saying. But I suppose you vnll maintain there is. 

Hum. Yes. 

Sir R. Yes ! is that the way you talk to me, you 
old boor ? What's my name ? 



VOCAL CULTURE. 431 

Hum. Eobert Bramble. 

Sir R. An't I a baronet ? Sir Robert Bramble of 
Blackberry Hall, in the county of Kent ? ' Tis time 
you should kno',v it, for you have been my clumsy, 
two-fisted valet these thirty years: can you deny 
that ? 

Hum. Hem ! 

Sir JR. Hem ? what do you mean by hem ? Open 
that rusty door of your mouth, and make your ugly 
voice walk out of it. Why don't you answer my 
question ? 

Hum. Because, if I contradict you, I shall tell you 
a lie, and when I agree with you, you are sure to fall 
out. 

Sir M. Humphrey Dobbins, I have been so long 
endeavoring to beat a few brains into your pate, that 
all your hair has tumbled off before my point is 
carried. 

Hum. What then ? Our parson says my head is 
an emblem of both our honors. 

Sir JR.. Ay ; because honors like your head are 
apt to be empty. 

Hum. No ; but if a servant has grown bald under 
his master's nose, it looks as if there was honesty on 
one side, and regard for it on the other. 

Sir R. Why, to be sure, old Humphrey, you are 
as honest as a — pshaw ! the parson means to palaver 
us ; but, to return to my position, I tell you, I don't 
like your flat contradiction. 

Hum. Yes you do. 

Sir R. I tell you I don't. I only love to hear 
men's arguments. I hate their flummery. 

Hum. AVhat do you call flummery ? 

Sir R. Flattery, blockhead ! a dish too often 
served up by paltry poor men to paltry rich ones. 

117. 

Transition from Narrative to Colloquial, 
\_The Gouty Merchant and the Stranger.'] 
In Broadstreet building, (on a winter night,) 
Snug by his parlor-fire, a gouty wight 
Sat all alone, with one hand rubbing 
His feet, rolled up in fleecy hose, 
With f other he'd beneath his nose 
19 



432 VOCAL CULTURE. 

The Public Ledger, in whose columns grubbing, 

He noted all the sales of hops, 

Ships, shops, and slops ; 
Gums, galls, and groceries ; ginger, gin. 
Tar, tallow, tumeric, turpentine, and tin ; 
When lo ! a decent personage in black, 
Entered and most politely said — 

^^Youv footman, sir, has gone his nightly track 

To the King's Head, 
And left your door ajar, which I 
Observed in passing by ; 

And thought it ndghhorli/ to give you noiic&J' 

" Ten thousand thanks ; how very few do get, 
In times of danger, 
Such Myid attentions from a stranger ! 
Assurdly that fellow's throat is 
Doomed to a final drop at Newgate : 
He knows, too, (the unconscionable elf,) 
That there's no soul at home except myself!^ 

" Indeed',' replied the stranger (looking grave), 

"Then he's a double knave, 
He knows that rogues and thieves by scores 
Nightly beset unguarded doors : 
And see, how easily might one 

Of these domestic foes, 

Even beneath your very nose, 
Perform his knavish tricks ; 
Enter your room as I have done, 
Blow out your candles — thus — and thus-^ 
Pocket your silver candlesticks, 

And — walk off- — thus,'' — 
So said, so done ; he made no more remark, 

Nor waited for replies. 

But marched ofi' with his prize. 
Leaving the gouty merchant in the dark. 

118. 
TRANSITION IN PARENTHESIS. 

Examples have before been given of ordinary 
parenthesis, — I shall here add one of rather extra- 
ordinary character. It affords the material for an 
excellent drill. 



VOCAL CULTURE. 433 

119. 

Example of Transition in Parenthesis. 
[_Ode to an In/ant iSon.^ 

Thou happy, happy elf ! 
(But stop, first let me kiss away that tear,) 

Thou tiny image of myself ! 
(My love, he's ppking peas into his ear,) 

Thou merry, laughing sprite, 
With spirits, feather light. 

Untouched by sorrow, and unsoiled by sin, 
(My dear, the child is swallowing a pin !) 

Thou little tricksy Puck ! 
"With antic toys so funnily bestruck. 

Light as the singing bird that wings the air, 
(The door! the door! he'll tumble down the stair!) 

Thou darling of thy sire I 
(Why, Jane, he'll set his pin-afore afire I) 

Thou imp of mirth and joy ! 
In love 's dear chain so bright a link. 

Thou idol of thy parents; — (Hang the boy! 
There goes my ink !) 

120. 
Transition from Male to Female Voice* 

Mister Socrates Snooks, a lord of creation, 
The second time entered the married relation ; 
Xantippe Caloric accepted his hand, 
And thought him the happiest man in the land. 
But scarce had the honej^moon passed o'er his head, 
When, one morning, to Xantippe, Socrates said, 
" I think, for a man of my standing in life, 
This house is too small, as I now have a wife: 
So, as early as possible, carpenter Carey 
Shall be sent for to widen my house and my dairy. 

"Xow, Socrates, dearest," Xantippe replied, 
" I hate to hear everything vulgarly mifd; 
Now, whenever you speak of your chatties again, 
Say, our cow house, our barn yard, our pig pen." 
" By your leave, Mrs. Snooks, I will say what I please 
0^ my houses, mg lands, my gardens, my trees." 
" Say Our^'^ Xantippe exclaimed in a rage. 
"I won't Mrs. Snooks, though 3'ou ask it an age ! " 



434 VOCAL CULTURE. 

Oh, woman! though only a part of man's rib, 
If the story in Genesis don't tell a fib, 
Should your naughty companion e'er quarrel with you, 
You are certain to prove the best man of the two. 
In the following case this was certainly true ; 
For the lovely Xantippe just pulled off her shoe, 
And laying about her, all sides at random, 
The adage was verified — " Nil desperandum." 

Mister Socrates Snooks, after trying in vain, 
To ward olf the blows which descended like rain, — 
Concluding that valor's best part was discretion — - 
Crept under the bed like a terrified Hessian : 
But the dauntless Xantippe, not one whit afraid. 
Converted the siege into a blockade. 

At last, after reasoning the thing in his pate, 
He concluded 't was useless to strive against fate ; 
And so, like a tortoise protruding his head, 
Said, "My dear, may we come out from under our bed?' 
"Hah! hah!" she exclaimed, "Mr. Socrates Snooks, 
I perceive you agree to my terms, by your looks: 
Now, Socrates, — hear me, — from this happy hour. 
If you'll only obey me. I'll never look sour." 
'Tis said the next Sabbath, ere going to church, 
He chanced for a clean pair of trowsers to search : 
Having found them, he asked, with a few nervous twitches 
*' My dear, may we put on our new Sunday breeches ? " 

\_From Kidd's Elocution. 



GE'STICULATION. 



CLASSES. 

As to Origin; 
Natural, Artificial. 

As to Style, 
Colloquial, Oratorical, Dramatic. 

As to Order, 
Principal, Subordinate. 

As to Comhination, 
Sinaple, Complex, Compound. 

As to Use, 

- , J . { To an Audience, 

Introductory, | q^ ^ Speech, a Paragraph, etc. 

TV ... (of Places, Persons. Things, Extent, 

Demonstrative, j Lj^jitation, of Antithesis, etc. 

f Of Assent, Denial, 

I Approbation, Disapprobation, 
Significant, «J Request, Command, 

I Prohibition, Threatening, 

1^ Silencing, Directing, etc. 
_, , ,. ( Earnest, 

Emphatic, j Rhetorical. 

Of Joy, Grief, Love, Hate, Contempt, 
Fear, Horror, Despair, Surprise, 
Impassioned, \ Astonishment, Fright, Pride, Arrogance, 

I Humility. Servility, Shame, Bashfulness, 

[etc. 

COf Personal Peculiarities. 

I Of National Peculiarities. 
Imitative, \ Of Feminine or Masculine Peculiarities. 

I Of Cockney Peculiarities. 

(Of Clownish Peculiarities. 
. ( Departure from Individual. 

Concluding, j Retreat from the Stage. 

(435) 



436 



GESTICULATION. 



USE OP THE PARTS. 



Feet, 



Right. 



Left. 



1 



V < 



( 1st, 2d, 3cl, 4th. 
I Contracted. 
Positions. \ Extended. 

Parallel. 

Introverted. 

Advancing. 

Retiring. 

Traversing. 

Starting. 

Stamping. 
^ Kickino;. 



Changes 

of 
Position. 



L Errors— 1, 2, 3. 



r Conditions '> ^'™' ^'S5<i, "Feeble, Trembling. 
I ^on<iitions. j Straight, Bent, Kneeling. 

Lower Limbs, ■{ M«Hnr,« \ Bending, Kneeling, Shaking 
I ^lotions. I Staggering. 
[Errors — 1, 2, 3. 



Trunk 



Conditions, 



\ Erect, Rigid, Stooping, Leaning, 
j Reclining, Square. Oblique. 
,, . 1 Bending, Stooping, Turning, Strutting, 

Motions, I Reclining, Swaggering, Quivering. 
Errors, 1, 2, 3. 



Shoulders, 



■p . . {, Thrown back, Drawn forward, 

iositions, i ]7^ie^.fited, Depres.^ed, Contracted 



Motions, 



Throwing back, Drawing forward. 
Elevating, Depressing, Shrugging. 



' Positions, 



Arms, < 



f Horizontal, 

, . , i- 1 I Downward, 

fAs to vertical Upward, 
direction, ] ^e^j^^^^ 

[Rest. 
, ^ m f Forwards, Oblique, 

As to Transverse I ^^^^.^^^^ Extended, 

(^ Backwards. 
Folded, Kimbo, Reposed, 
Arrogant. 



t direction, 
Positions in Combination, 



J. As to 
Direc- 



IS 



tion, 



^Downward, 
-< Horizontal, 
(Upward, 



1 ,r 



Direct, 



A i, -n ^ Violent, Medium, 

As to Force, j j^i^^.^ate, F 



f Front, 
I Cross, 
■{ Oblique, 

Extended, , , i^evolving, 
[Backward, J [ 



! J Inwards, 
^ ' Outwards, 



Divisions, 



euble. 
( Preparator}', Commencing, 
I Stroke, Conclusion. 



GESTICULATION. 



437 



f Position of 
the palm, 

Position of 
the fingers, 

Position of hands and 
fingers with regard to 



prone, supine, injjvards, outwards, 
vertical, forwards, backwards, 
natural, clinched, extended, index, 
collected, holding, hollow, 
thumb extended, grasping. 

applied, clasped, crossed, 
folded, inclosed, wringing, 



Hands, ^ each other, ) ( touching, enumerating. 

Positions with , f on the forehead, over the eyes, 
regard to other ( J over the chin, over the mouth, 
parts of the j j pinching the chin, on the breast, 
body, [ finger on the lips, on the nose, 

pointing, noting, beckoning, repressing, 
advancing, springing, striking, pressing, 
retracting, rejecting, bending, recoiling, 
shaking, throwing, clinching, collecting. 



Motions 
, of hands. 



Head ^ Positions, —erect, inclined, elevated, aside. 

' ( Motions,— assenting, denying, shaking, tossing, aside. 



Eyes, (Direction, j 



forwards, averted, downwards, upwards, 
around, on vacancy, fixed, 
smiling, glistening, winking, frowning, 
Conditions, | weeping, closing, distended, starting, 

staring, wild, phrensied, bloodshot, etc. 



Mouth 
and 
Lips, 



Condition, 



Actions, 



closed, gaping, grinning, pouting, 
down in the mouth, 
with 9t ff upper lip. 
laughing, hissing, yawning, 
sneering, flouting, hooting, 
chuckling, spitting, whistling. 



QUALITIES, 

Magnificent, Just, Constrained, 

Bold, Appropriate. Tame, 

Energetic, Forcible, Feeble, 

Varied, Select, Monotonous, 

Simple, Adequate, Theatrical, 

Few, Sufficient, Excessive, 

Graceful, Suitable, Awkward, 

Precise, Well-timed, Ill-timed. 



METHODS OF DRILL. 

1. In gestures alone, ) I Simple, 

>- < Complex, 

2. In gestures with voice,) ( Compound. 



Oratorical. 
Dramatic, 



438 



GESTICULATION. 



DEFINITIONS, REMARKS AND EXPLANATIONS. 

Remark 1. Most of the text books on Elocution, virtually 
ignore the subject of Gesticulation, by saying that it cannot be 
taught by pictures; or by referring it to teachers, who, for the 
most part, are unacquainted even with its nomenclature. 

Remark 2. Having given an outline of Gesticulation, em- 
bracing its nomenclature, I shall have room only for the de(i- 
nitions of such terms and explanations of such parts of it as 
seem most to require them. 

Remark 3. Almost any teacher, by going over this classifi- 
cation and familiarizing himself with its terms and details, 
and by practicing them in his private room, w^ill be able to in- 
troduce the following drills on Gesture into his school with 
good effect. They can take the place of other gymnastic 
exercises during recesses or intermissions. 

Remark 4. An abridged notation may be secured by using 
capital initial letters for the positions and motions of the 
head, eyes, mouth, also for the lower cxtrcmeties; and small 
initial letters for the motions, positions, and conditions of all 
other parts. In case the initial letters are alike in two terms, 
the first two letters must be used; and when the first two are 
alike, the first three can be used. The letter added to an initial 
capital should be small. This notation is convenient in guid- 
ing drills; also, for noting the errors or defects of pupils un- 
der drill in order for efficient criticism. 

Remark 5. All that has been gained by the drill in the 
Management of the Person, as treated of on pages 357—365, 
will be valuable as introductory to Drills in Gesticulation. 

Gesticulation. See page 55, section 7. 

CLASSES. 

Natural Gesticulation. See page 43, section 6. 
Artificial Gesticulation. See page 44, section 6. 
Colloquial Gesture. That which occurs in ordinary con- 
versation. 



GESTICULATION. 439 

Explanation. This oflcn consists in motions of the head 
only ; not unlrefiueiitly, however, the motions of the hand 
and forearm are used ; seldom the motions of the arm. 

Oratorical Gesture. That used in the pulpit, and in 
legislative assemblies. 

Explanation. This consists of the positions and motions 
of all parts of the system, except such attitudes and highly 
wrought displays, as are necessary to exhibit the stronger 
emotions, as of fright, horror, despair, etc. It forbids the 
use of the forearm, by itself, entirely. 

Dramatic Gesture. That which is suitable for the drama 
or theater. 

Explanation. It includes all oratorical gesture ; also, the 
appropriate portrayal of the strongest passions and emotions 
of the soul. 

Simple Gesture. That made by one member or equally 
by a pair of members, when designed to give expression to 
only one gush of thought or feeling. 

Complex Gesture. That which involves the motions of 
two or more members, a part of which motions are subordi- 
nate to others. 

Compound Gesture. Gesture continued from one thought 
or feeling to another, with, or Avithout change. 

Principal Gesture. That which in a complex gesture is 
the most prominent. 

Introductory Gesture, That which is designed to 
accompany the introduction of a speaker to an audience, or 
to prepare the minds of an audience for a new speech or a new 
paragraph. 

Explanation. The bow is commonly addressed to the 
audience, when a speaker is intro luced both by the speaker 
and the person introducing him ; also, a downward oblique 
outward gesture with the right hand, by the latter. 

Remark. For want of room, I shall be compelled to omit 
the definitions anJ explanations of other classes of Gesture. 
They will, for the most part, explain themselves to any intel- 
ligent teacher. 
19* 



440 GESTICULATION. 

POSITIONS AND MOTIONS OF THE FEET. 

1st Position. Body on the left foot, right foot forward, 
head erect, hands down. 

2d Position. Body forward on the right foot; the left foot 
behind, resting on the toe. 

2d Position. Body on the right foot, the left in front. 

4th Position. Body on the left foot, the right behind, 
resting on the toe. 

Contracted. Feet nearly touching. 

Extended. Feet far apart. 

Parallel. Both feet in the same direction. 

Introverted, Feet with toes turned inward. 

Remark. The motions of the feet will explain them- 
selves; and for want of room, I shall leave the Outline on 
the Trunk and Shoulders for the ingenuity of the teacher and 
pupil to master. 

POSITIONS OF THE ARM. 

Horizontal. Extended in a straight line from the shoul- 
der, neither elevated nor depressed. 

Downward. Depressed 45° from the horizontal position. 

Upward. Elevated 45° from the horizontal position. 

Zenith. Pointing vertically upward. 

Rest. Hanging by the force of gravity only. 

Forward. Extending in a straight line, neither inclining 
to right or left. 

Oblique. The right arm inclined 45° towards the left; the 
left arm extended 45° towards the right. 

Both arms are in the right oblique position, when 
inclined 45° towards the right; and in the left oblique 
position, when inclined 45° towards the left. 

Across. The right arm directed towards the left, or the 
left arm directed towards the right, in contact with the 
breast. 

Extended. Directed outward, 90° from forward. 

Backward. Making an obtuse angle with forward. 



GESTICULATION. 441 

Folded. "Wrapped across the breast, and enclosing each 
other. 

KiMBo. With the elbow extended, and the hand placed on 
the hip. 

Arrogant. The elbows in contact with the person, and 
the thumbs in the arm-holes of the vest. 

Reposed. With one hand covering the other over the 
stomach. A feminine position. 

Remark. Outline of Motions must explain itself. It gives 
at least 96 different gestures with each arm, without inclu- 
ding any changes of the hand or fingers. 

DIVISIONS OP GESTURE WITH THE UPPER EX- 
TREMITY. 

Preparation. This consists in such elevation of the hand 
and arm from the position of Rest as is necessary to perform 
the gesture. 

Commencement. The first part of the motion, which is 
given with less force than the Stroke. 

Stroke. Climax or telling point of the gesture, which 
must be given with greater energy than that of the motion 
preceding it. 

Conclusion. The falling back of the hand and arm to the 
state of Rest. 

POSITIONS OF THE HAND. 

Prone. Palm downward. 

Supine. Palm upwai-d. 

Inward. Palm toward the body. 

Outward. Palm away from the body. 

Vertical. Pointing directly upward. 

Forward. Palm turned forward, the arm being at rest, 
or in one of the extended or backward positions. 

Backward. Palm turned backward, the arm being at rest, 
or in one of the extended or backward positions. 

DISPOSITION OF THE FINGERS. 
Natural. The fingers all a little bent in towards the 
palm, and the extremity of the thumb a little bent outward; 
the same arrangement as when offered for shaking hands. 



442 GESTICULATION. 

Clinched. The fingers firmly closed, and thumb pressing 
over them. 

Extended. The fingers separated from each other, accord- 
ing to the excitement of the speaker. 

Index. The fore finger extended, the other fingers being 
closed. 

Collected. The ends of the fingers inclined towards, or 
touching the end of the thumb. 

Holding. The fore and middle fingers pressed at their 
middle against the thumb, the other fingers being more or 
less contracted. 

Hollow. The hand supine, and the fingers curved with- 
out touching. 

Thumb. The fingers closed, the thumb being used as an 
index. 

COMBINED POSITION OF THE HANDS. 

Applied. The palms, fingers and thumbs mutually 
pressed against each other. 

Clasped. All the fingers inserted between each other, 
and closed, as far as possible. 

Folded. The fingers of the right hand laid between the 
thumb and forefinger of the left, the right thumb crossing 
the left. 

Crossed. One hand laid on the breast and the other laid 
over it. 

Inclosed. One hand so laid within the other that one 
thumb lies over the other. 

GESTURES WITH HAND AND ARM. 

Pointing. Indicating the direction of any object. 

Noting. The right hand as an index descending gently 
and repeatedly; often towards the palm of the other hand, 
hollow. 

Repelling, The arms first retracted, being pushed for- 
ward with the hand vertical QXi& outward. 

Waving. The fingers first downward, being raised quickly 
by extending the joints of the hands and arms. 



~~l 



GESTICULATION. 443 

Beckoxixg. Tho hand imcard, and brought repeatedly 
towards the breast. 

Repressing. The hand outioard, being carried repeatedly 
forioard. It is the opposite of the preceding. 

Advancing. The hand first moved downward and back- 
ward, then regularly /orit'arc? to the horizontal; a step being 
made forward to aid in the gesture. 

Springing. The hand having nearly arrived at its limit 
in a gesture, being suddenly thrown forward making the 
stroke of the gesture. This must be simultaneous with the 
enunciation of the accented syllable in the emphatic word. 

Striking. The arm being thrown towards the person ad- 
dressed, as it were, by the force of the gesture. 

Threatening. The hand suddenly clinched, is raised into 
a posture of offence. 

Pressing. The hand already laid on some part, the elbow 
being raised and the fingers pressed more forcibly on that 
part, denoting greater violence of the emotion. 

Retracting. Withdrawing the arm preparatory to ges- 
ture. 

Rejecting. Pushing the hand forward toward an object, 
at the same time averting the face. 

METHOD OF DRILL WITHOUT VOICE. 

Remark 1. A few minutes spent in these or similar drills 
of gesticulation, every day, in connection with reading les- 
sons, or at recesses or intermissions, will be sufficient to give 
propriety, force and beauty to the expression o( gesture, where 
otherwise there is the greatest backwardness, or the most re- 
pulsive awkwardness in gesticulation. 

Remark 2. It is not to be supposed that these drills as 
laid down here are the only drills by which a class ought to 
be trained. They are only given as specimens for the com- 
mencement o^i\\QivQ.\mng in Oratorical Gesticulation; for want 
of room, drills in Dramatic Gesture are omitted. 

Remark 3. The constrained and feeble action of Collo- 
quial Gesticulation calls for no training otherwise than to 
break it up in Reading, Declamation and Oratory. 



r 



444 GESTICULATION. 

ORATORICAL GESTICULATION. 

DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER, 

Direction 1. Arrange the members of the class on the 
floor, at such distances that their hands cannot meet. Let 
them stand as many as possible so that their feet can be seen. 

Direction 2. Having cleared off your table, take your 
stand on it, in order that your entire figure may be seen by 
every pupil in the class. 

Direction 3. Illustrate every new position and motion to 
the class by examples, cautioning them against the various 
awkward errors to which they will be liable, illustrating 
such errors also by example. 

Direction 4. Let the class take the same position and go 
through with the same evolutions, many times, in concert 
with yourself; then by themselves in compliance with your 
directions, while your attention is given to the faults of indi- 
viduals, so that you can correct them in the repetition of the 
exercise. If simply describing the error does not enable the 
pupil to correct it, you will illustrate it, or caricature it, till 
he will be glad to abandon it. 

Direction 5. When the class shall have become familiar 
with the meaning of the words used describing positions and 
motions, either by practice in the drills or by study of the 
Outline and Definitions, you can introduce a random exer- 
cise; firstly, requiring the class to follow your lead as closely 
as possible; secondly, requiring them to comply with your 
random verbal directions. 

teacher's directions to pupils. 

Explanation 1. "Words in italics in the following direc- 
tions are technical ; they will be found in the Outline on 
Gesticulation in their proper places, and their definitions are 
given so far as has been thought necessary among the Defini- 
tions following the Outline. 

Explanation 2. The word Position, when commencing 
with a capital, will refer to the position of the feet; and the 
word Rest, to the hands and arms. 



GESTICULATION. 



445 



INTRODUCTORY AND CONCLUDING GESTURE. 

Series 1. Take your places. First Position. Second Po- 
Bition with the bow, First Position, Second Position with 
the Introductory. {^Explanation. This is given by raising 
the right hand from Rest, gracefully and in the natural posi- 
tion, as if to shake hands. It is used to introduce a speech 
or a new paragraph.) First Position with Rest. Third Po- 
sition, Fourth Position, and Introductory with the left hand. 
Third Position and Rest, concluding bow. First Position, 
with a step backward. 

Series 2. First Position. Second Position with a bow 
and sweep of the right hand towards the right. Second Po- 
sition with a bow and sweep of the left hand towards the 
left. First Position, Introductory and Second Position. First 
Position and sweeping bow, retiring one or two steps to the 
First Position. 



POSITIONS AND MOTIONS OP THE HANDS AND ARMS. 

Scries 1. First Position, arms horizontal forward^ hands 
natural, prone, supine, forward, clinched, Rest. 

Hands natural, arms forward, with second Position; down- 
ward, horizontal, upward, zenith, Rest. 

Right hand index, arm north. Right arm Rest, with the 
left hand index, arm south. Left arm Rest, with the right 
hand index, arm east; Right arm Rest, with the left hand 
index, arm west, Rest. With the right index, point to me, 
to the clock, to the zenith, etc. 

Remark. These gestures must be given with vivacity, in 
graceful curves, rather than with awkward, angular motions; 
also with the sp>ring, making the stroke. 

First Position, arms horizontal oblique, with hands supine; 
arms folded, kimho, horizontal extended with hand forward, 
arms arrogant, with trunk swaggering; hands applied; arms 
upward, extended, with hands natural; hands wringing. Rest. 

Remark to the Teacher. By studying the Outline and Defi- 
nitions you will be able to carry on such exercises, varying 
them, and bringing in new positions, motions, and combina- 



446 GESTICULATION. 

tions, until your class shall become familiar with the nom- 
enclature of Gesticulation, and are able to gesticulate with 
freedom, grace and effect. 

DRILL IN GESTICULATION WITH VOICE. 

Several authors on Gesticulation have given a variety of 
pieces with the appropriate gestures of all the different parts 
of the system marked, either with figures or letters. I have 
found it difficult to make any good use of either kind of no- 
tation, without devoting more time to learn them than a 
teacher can well afford, who is fully occupied in teaching 
the various branches of a common school. Neither have I 
found the cuts representing the various positions of any real 
service; and if they were, it would amount to little, as motions 
cannot be represented, which of course are the most difficult 
to acquire and to teach. The method of drill which I have 
found most serviceable is the declamation of short pieces, in 
concert, with the pupils, after they have had opportunity to 
memorize them: giving one or two such pieces at each read- 
ing lesson, to be memorized for recital and practice in ges- 
ticulation, a few moments, at the next reading exercise. 

I shall leave it to the judgment and taste of the trainer to 
select examples from these following, or from other books, 
and to give appropriate gestures in their delivery. 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN GESTICULATION AND 
VOCAL DELIVERY. 

Demonstrative Gesture. 

Though you, though all the world, though an angel 
from heaven were to declare the truth of it, I could 
not believe it. 

From North to South, from East to West, in all its 
wide extent, our country calls on heaven for blessings 
this day. Oh that they may descend without meas- 
ure, and sweep crime and oppression from all the 
land. 

Are not you, sir, is not your honorable colleague 
sitting near you, are you not both the proscribed and 
predestined objects of punishment and of vengeance? 



I i 
I I 



GESTICULATION. 447 

Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens to 
tvash this crimson hand as white as snow? 

thou that rollest above, round as the shield of 
my fathers! Whence are thy beams, O Sun, thy 
everlasting light? Thou comest forth in thy awful 
beauty; the stars hide themselves in the sky, the 
moon cold and pale sinks in the western wave. But 
thou, thyself movest alone; who can be a comjDanion 
of thy course? 

Know ye this, my friends, that he who reigneth 
in Heaven, whose footstool is the solid globe, who at 
a glance taketh in all things, whose essence filleth all 
space, the immensity of the universe, regardeth us, 
the creatures of his wisdom and his bounty, not as 
objects to be cast away or repelled from his presence, 
but as beings to v/hom his heart is ever open, his 
hand ever extended. He will take us to his arms, as 
a mother taketh her child! — l_From Fitzgerald's Exhi- 
bition Speaker. 

Ye crags and peaks, I 'm with you once agaiD 

1 hold to you the hands j'ou first beheld 
To show they still are free. Methinks 

I hear a spirit in your echoes answer me 
And bid your tenant welcome to his home 
Again ! sacred forms, how proud you look! 
How high you lift your heads into the sky! 
How huge you are ! how mighty and how free ! 
Ye are things that toAver, that shine — whose smile 
Makes glad, whose frown is terrible, whose forms, 
Robed or unrobed, do all the impress wear 
Of awe divine. Ye guards of liberty, 
I 'm with you once again. I call to you 
With all my voice. I hold my hands to you 
To show they still are free. I rush to you 
As though I could embrace j'ou ! 

Demonstrative., Eniphaiic, Significant and 
Impassioned Gesture. 

HOHEKLINDEX. 

On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodd'n snow, 
And dark as winter was the flow 
Of Iser rolling rapidly. 



448 GESTICULATION. 

But Linden saw another sight, 
When the drum beat at dead of night, 
Commanding fires of death to light 
The darkness of her scenery. 

By torch and trumpet fast array'd, 
Each horseman drew his battle blade; 
And furious every charger neigh' d, 
To join the dreadful revelry. 

Then shook the hills with thunder riv'n, 
Then rush'd the steeds to battle driv'n, 
And louder than the bolts of heav'n, 
Far fla,shed the red artillery. 

And redder yet those fires shall glow 
On Linden's hills of bloodstained snow; 
And darker yet, shall be the flow 
Of Iser rolling rapidly. 

'Tis morn — but scarce yon lurid sun 
Can pierce the war clouds, rolling dun, 
Where furious Frank, and fiery Hun 
Shout in their suljDh'rous canopy. 

The combat deepens — On, ye brave, 
Who rush to glory, or the grave! 
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave! 
And charge with all thy chivalry! 

Few, few shall part where many meet! 
The snow shall be their winding sheet, 
And every turf beneath their feet. 
Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

THE Seminole's defiance. 

I 've scared ye in the city, 

I scalped ye on the plains; 
Go, count your chosen, where they fell 

Beneath my leaden rain ! 
I scorn your proffered treaty ! 

The pale-face I defy ! 
Kevenge is stamped upon my spear. 

And blood my battle cry. 

Ye 've trailed me through the forest, 
Ye 've tracked me o'er the stream; 



GESTICULATION. 



449 



And struggling through the everglades, 
Your bristling bayonets gleam; 

But I stand as should the warrior, 
With his rifle and his spear; 

The scalp of vengeance still is red, 
And warns ye — Come not here! 

I loathe ye in my bosom, 

I scorn ye with mine eye, 
And 1 11 taunt ye with my latest breath, 

And fight ye till I die! 
I ne'er will ask ye quarter, 

And I ne'er will be your slave; 
But I '11 swim the sea of slaughter, 

Till I sink beneath its wave! 



THE MISER, 

The wind was high — the window shakes; 

With sudden start the miser wakes! 

Along the silent room he stalks; 

Looks back, and trembles as he walks! 

Each lock, and every bolt he tries, 

In every creek, and corner pries; 

Then opes his chest with treasure stor'd, 

And stands in rapture o'er his hoard. 

But now with suclden qualms possess' d, 

He wrings his hands, and beats his breast^ 

By conscience stung, he wildly stares; 

And thus his guilty soul declares: 

Had the deep earth her stores confined. 

This heart had known sweet peace of mind. 

But virtue's sold ! Good gods! what price 

Can recompense the pangs of vice? 

Oh, bane of good ! seducing cheat, 

Can man, weak man, thy power defegit? 

Gold banish' d honor from the mind, 

And only left the name behind; 

Gold sowed the world with every ill; 

Gold taught the murd'rers sword to kill; 

'T was gold instructed coward hearts 

In treach'ry's more pernicious arts. 

Who can recount the mischiefs o'er? 

Virtue resides on earth no more. 



450 GESTICULATION. 



ELIZA. 

Now stood Eliza on the wood-crowned height, 

O'er Minden's plain spectatress of the light. 

Sought with bold eye, amid the bloody strife, 

Her dearer self, the partner of her life ; 

From hill to hill the rushing host pursued, 

And viewed his banner, or believed she viewed. 

Pleased with the distant roar, with quicker tread, 

Fast by her hand one lisping boy she led; 

And one fair girl, amid the loud alarm, 

Slept on her kerchief, cradled by her arm; 

While around her brows bright beams of honor dart. 

And love's warm eddies circle round her heart. 

Near and more near the intrepid beauty press'd, 

Saw through the driving smoke his dancing crest; 

Saw on his helm, her virgin hands inwove. 

Bright stars of gold, and mj^stic knots of love; 

Heard the exulting shout, " They run, they run! 

Great heav'n," she cried, "he's safe! the battle's won!" 

A ball now hisses through the airy tides, 

(Some fury winged it,, and some demon guides!) 

Parts the fine locks her graceful head that deck, 

Wounds her fair ear and sinks into her neck; 

The red stream issuing from her azure veins, 

Dyes her white veil, her ivory bosom stains. 

"Ah me!" she cried, and sinking on the ground, 

Kiss'd her dear babes, regardless of the wound; 

" Oil! cease not to beat, thou vital urn! 

Wait, gushing, oh, wait my love's return!" 

Hoarse barks the wolf, the vulture screams from far, 

The angel. Pity, shuns the ranks of war ! 

" Oh ! spare, ye war-hounds, spare their tender age; 

On me, on me," she cried, " exhaust your rage!" 

Then with weak arms her weeping babes caressed, 

And, sighing, hid them in her bloodstained vest. 

From tent to tent the impatient warrior flies, 

Fear in his heart, and frenzy in his eyes; 

Eliza's name along the camp he calls, — 

"Eliza" echoes through the canvas walls. [tread, 

Quick through the murmuring gloom his footsteps 

O'er groaning heaps., the dying and the dead; 

Vault o'er the plain, and in the tangled wood 

Lo ! dead Eliza, weltering in her blood. 

Soon hears his listening son the welcome sounds, 



GESTICULATION. 451 

With open arms and sparkling eyes he bounds; 
"Speak low,"' he cries, and gives his little hand, 
"Eliza sleeps upon the dew cold sand:" 
Poor weeping babe, with bloody fingers press' d 
And tried with pouting lips, her niilkless breast, 
"Alas we both with cold and hunger quake — 
Why do you weep? Mamma will soon awake." — 
"She'll wake no more!" the hapless mourner cried, 
Upturn'd his eyes, and clasped his hand and sigh'd; 
Stretched on the ground awhile entranced he lay, 
And pressed warm kisses on the lifeless clay: 
And then upsprung, with wild convulsive start, 
And all the father kindled in his heart. 
"Oh, heavens," he cried, "my first rash vow forgive; 
These bind to earth, for these I pray to live!" 
Round his chill babes he wrapt his crimson vest, 
And clasped them, sobbing, to his aching breast. 

ROLLA TO HIS SOLDIERS. 

They follow an adventurer whom they fear, and 
obey a power which they hate. We serve a monarch 
whom we love, a God whom we adore ! Whene'er 
they move in anger, desolation tracks their progress; 
whene'er they pause in amity, affliction mourns their 
friendship! — They boast they come but to enlarge 
our minds, and free us from the yoke of error. Yes; 
they will give enlightened freedom to our minds, 
who are themselves the slaves of passion, avarice and 
pride! They offer us their protection. Yes; such 
protection as vultures give to lambs, — covering and 
devouring them! They call on us to barter all the 
good we have inherited and proved, for the desperate 
chance of something better which they promise. Be 
our plain answer this: — The throne we honor is the 
people's choice: the laws we reverence are our brave 
forefather's legacy; the faith we follow teaches us to 
live in peace with all mankind, and die with hopes 
of bliss beyond the grave! 

RIENZI TO THE ROMANS. 

Friendsl 
I came not here to talk. Ye know too well 
The story of our thraldom. We are slaves! 
The bright sun rises to his course, and lights 
A race of slaves! He sets, and his last beam 



452 GESTICULATION. 

Falls on a slave! not such as, swept along 

By the full tide of power, the conqueror leads 

To glory and undying fame, — 

But base, ignoble slaves! — slaves to a horde 

Of petty tyrants, feudal despots; lords, 

Rich in some dozen paltry villages; 

Strong in some hundred spearmen; only great 

In that strange spell, a name! Each hour, dark fraud 

Or open rapine, or protected murder. 

Cry out against them. But this very day 

An honest man, my neighbor, — there he stands — 

Was struck — struck like a dog, by one who wore 

The badge of Ursini! because, forsooth. 

He tossed not high the ready cap in air, 

Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts, 

At sight of that great ruffian. Be we men 

And suffer such dishonor? Men, and wash not 

The stain away in blood? Such shames are common, 

I have known deeper wrongs. I that speak to ye — 

I had a brother once, a gracious boy, 

Full of all gentleness, of calmest hope, 

Of sAveet and quiet joy. There was the look 

Of heaven on his face, which limners give 

To the belov'd disciple. How I loved 

That gracious boy! Younger by fifteen years, 

Brother at once and son! He left my side, 

A summer bloom on his fair cheeks — a smile 

Parting his innocent lips. In one short hour 

The pretty, harmless boy was slain. I saw 

The corpse, the mangled corpse, and then I [slaves! 

Cried for vengeance! Rouse, ye Romans! Rouse ye 

Have ye brave sons? Look in the next fierce brawl 

To see them die. Have ye fair daughters? Look 

To see them live, torn from your arms, distained, 

Dishonored; and if ye dare call for justice 

Be answered by the lash! Yet this is Rome, 

That sat on her seven hills, and from her throne 

Of beauty ruled the world! Yet, we are Romans 

Why, in that elder day, to be a Roman 

Was greater than to be a king. And once again — 

Hear me, ye walls, that echoed to the tread 

Of either Brutus — once again I swear 

The Eternal City shall be free. 



COISTTENTS. 

PART I. CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE. 

Page. 

Introduction, 7 — 11 

Outline op Knowledge, 11 — 12 

Outlines op Departments and Branches of 

Literature, 11; Sciences, 12; Arts, 13, II — 13 

Definitions, for Outlines of Knowledge, 14 — 27 

Definitions of Departments of Literature, 15 ; 
of Sciences, 15; of Arts, 16; of Branches of 
Phrenics, 16; Theotics, 17; Chronics, 18; 
Epistatics, 19; Geotics, 20; Therapeutics, 21; 
Mathematics, 22; Physics, 23; Technics 24; 
Graphics, 25; Polemics, 26; Cosmics, 26 — 27. 

Method of using the Outline of Knowledge, 27 — 28 

Schemes op Mental Training, 29 — 32 

PART IL ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Introduction 35 — 38 

General Outline op Grammar, 39 

Language, 40 — 46 

Definitions, Explanations, and Remarks for 

Outline of Grammar, 43 — 46 

ORTHOEPY. 

Outline op Orthoepy. Definitions, etc., 51 — 57 

Methods OF Teaching Pronunciation, 51 — 57 

Chart No. 1. Physiological Classification of 
the Articulate Sounds, with Phonotypic, Web- 

sterian, and Worcesterian Notation, 52 — 53 

Chart No. 2. Cognates of Articulate Sounds, 54 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Chart No. 3, Orthographic Arrangement of 

Letters and Sounds, 58 — 59 

Outline of Orthography. Definitions, etc., 60 — 69 

Form of Orthographic Parsing, 62 

Definitions for Outlines of Orthography, 63 — 69 

Phonetic Method of Teaching the Alphabet, 70 — 75 

Transition to Romanic Reading, ' 76 — 80 

Method of Teaching Spelling to Secondary Classes, 81 — 84 

Method of Teaching Spelling to Advanced Classes, 85 — 91 

Exercises in Orthographic Parsing, 92 — 96 

(453) 



454 CONTENTS. 

PART TIL GRAMMAR. 

Introduction, 99 — 103 

Method of Teaching Primary Classes, 104 — 142 

Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 143 — 176 

Outline of Orthogeny, 149 

Outline op the Noun. Definitions, etc., 150 — 156 

Outline op the Verb. Definitions, etc , 157 — 161 

Outline op the Pronoun. Definitions, etc., .... 162 — 165 

Outline of Syntax, Remarks, etc., 165 — 166 

Outline op Analysis. Definitions, etc., 167 — 176 

]\Iethods of Oral Analysis, 171 

Methods of Written Analysis, 173 — 174 

Abridgement, 175 — 176 

PART IV. GEOGRAPHY. 

Introduction, 1'79 — 183 

Method of Teaching Primary Classes, 184 — 195 

Method of Teaching Secondary Classes, 196 — 214 

Topic List for Natural Divisions of Land, 207 

Topic List for Natural Divisions of Water, 209 

General Directions for the Study of Political 

Divisions 211—214 

Method of Teaching Advanced Classes, 215 — 236 

Outline of Mathematical Geography, 217 — 218 

Outline of Physical Geography, 218 — 223 

Outline of Phenomenal Geography, 224 — 229 

Outline of Political GeogTaphy, ..." 229 — 234 

Topic List for Descriptive Geography, 235 

Use OP Apparatus, 237 — 264 

The Globe, 237 

Uses op the Globe, 238 — 248 

Tellurian, 249 

Uses op the Tellurian, 249 — 264 

PART V. ARITHMETIC. 

Introduction, 267 — 271 

Methods of Teaching Mental Arithmetic, 272 — 282 

Methods of Teaching Written Arithmetic, 283 — 290 

Theoretical Arithmetic, 291 — 344 

Outline OF Arithmetic Definitions, etc., 291 — 297 

Outline OF Notation. Definitions, etc., 297 — 304 

Outline op Numeration, Definitions, etc., 305 — 306 

Topic List for Fundamental Rules, 306 

Discussion of Addition, 307 — 313 

Outline op Compound Numbers, 314 

Outline OF Common Fractions. Definitions, etc., 315 — 329 

Outline op Decimal Fractions. Definitions, etc., 329 — 332 



CONTENTS. 455 

Outline OF Ratio. Definitions, etc., 334 — 335 

OuTLiXE OP Proportion. Definitions, etc., 336 — 338 

Outline op Percentage, 339 

Outline op Gain and Loss, 339 

Outline OP Commission, 339 

Outline OP Brokerage, 339 

Outline op Stock, 339 

Outline op Insurance, 340 

Outline op Taxes, 340 

Outline op Interest, 340 — 341 

Outline op Banking, 342 

Outline op Exchange, 343 

Outline op Involution, 343 

Outline op Evolution, 343 

Outline op Arithmetical Progression, 344 

Outline op Geometrical Progression, 344 

PART VI. ELOCUTION. 

Lntroduction, 347 — 364 

Outline op Elocution. Definitions, etc., 355 

Outline op Departments. Definitions, etc., 356 

Outline op Management op Person. Direc- 
tions, etc., 357 — 361 

Method of Drilling a Class on Management of 

Person. Remarks and Directions, 361 363 

Outline op Vocal Culture. Definitions, etc,... 364 — 389 
Drill in Breathing, 367; Drill in Articulation, 
369; Pitch, 369; Drill on Pitch, 370; Force, 
373; Drill on Force, 373; Laughing Exercise, 
377; Rate, 378; Inflections, 379 ; Method of 
Drill in Rising Inflections, 380 ; Rising Slide 
— Bend, 381 — 382; Falling Inflections, 383; 
Partial Close,— Perfect Close, 384; Series, 386; 
Method of Drill in all the Simple Inflections 
Combined, 388 ; Compound Inflections, 389. 

Rules FOR Inflections, 394 — 409 

Rule i. Examples for Drill, 395; Exception 1, 
396; Exception 2, 397; Exception 3, 397. 
Rule ii. Examples for Drill, 398; Exception, 
399. Rule in. Notes 1, 2, Examples for Drill, 
400 — 401; Exceptions 1, 2, 3, 401. IUile it. 
Notes 1, 2, 403. Rule v. Notes 1, 2, 3, 404, 
— 405; Rule vi, 406; Rule vii, 406; Rule viii, 
407; Rule ix, 408; Rule x, 408; Method of 
Drill in Poetry, 408. 

Emphasis, 409 — 415 

Classes of Emphasis, 409 ; Methods of Giving 
20 



456 CONTENTS. 

Emphasis, 409 ; Methods of Drill in Classes of 
Emphasis, 410; Ordinary Emphasis, 411 ; An- 
tithetic Emphasis, 411 ; Cumulative Emphasis, 
412; Deferred Emphasis, 412; Conventional 
Emphasis, 413; Examples for Drill in Methods 
of Emphasis, 413; Depression of Pitch and 
Diminution of Force, 413; Depression of Pitch 
and Increase of Force, 413 ; Whisper, 414; In- 
crease or Diminution of Rate, 414; Change of 
Accent, 414; Emphatic Sweep, 414 ; Emphatic 
Pause, 414 — 415. 

Tone, 415—416 

Examples for Drill in Impure Tone, Nasal, 
Guttural, Aspirated, Tremulous, 416. 

Styles op Delivery, 416 — 429 

Method of Drill in Styles of Delivery, 417; Ex- 
amples for Drill in Narrative 418; Didactic 
419; Persuasive, 419; Argumeotative, 420 
Colloquial, 421; Humorous, 423; Plaintive, 
424; Denunciatory, 424; Contemptuous, 425; 
Ironical, 425; Angry, 42G; Personating Styles, 
426—429; Love, 427; Fear, 427; Hate, 428; 
Anger, 428; Irish, 428; Dutch, 429. 

Transition, 429 — 434 

Transition in Paragraph, 430 ; in Style, 430 — 
432; in Parenthesis, 432; from Male to Female 
Voice, 433—434. 

GESTICULATION. 

Outline op Gesticulation, 435 — 437 

Definitions, Remarks and Explanations, 438 

Positions and Motions of the Feet, 440 

Positions of the Arm, 440 

Divisions of Gesture with Upper Extremity,... 441 

Positions of the Hand, 441 

Disposition of the Fingers, 441 

Combined Position of the Hands, 442 

Gestures with Hand and Arm, 442 

Method of Drill without Voice, 443 

Oratorical Gesticulation, 444 

Directions to the Teacher, 444 

Teacher's Directions to Pupils, 444 

Introductory and Concluding Gesture, 445 

Positions and Motions of the Hands and Arms, 445 

Drill in Gesticulation with Voice, 446 

Examples for Drill in Gesticulation and Vocal 

Delivery, 446—452 




3A77 



